intro + cell injury

Question 1

what is the main cause of death in developed country?

Answer 1

cancer and cardiovascular disease

Question 2

what is the main cause of death in underdeveloped countries?

Answer 2

infectious disease

Question 3

what is 1 DALY?

Answer 3

1 disability-adjusted life year = loss of one year of full health

Question 4

which killers have increased since 1990?

Answer 4

high blood pressure, smoking, obesity, alcohol consumption, ambient pollution

Question 5

which killers have decreased since 1990?

Answer 5

child starvation, house-air pollution

Question 6

is genetic or environment more important for determining disease?

Answer 6

environment (lifestyle)

Question 7

what is the difference between symptoms and signs

Answer 7

symptoms = phenomenon you experience
signs = visible manifestation; observable phenomenon

Question 8

what is a sequel?

Answer 8

occurs with time; direct outcome of something (ex skin lesion sequel is a scar)

Question 9

how are biopsy tissues fixed?

Answer 9

with formaldehyde, embedded with paraffin, sliced and stained

Question 10

what is the best way to get a biopsy? why?

Answer 10

endoscopy in respiratory, gastrointestinal, reproductive system; does not require surgery

Question 11

what is histopathology?

Answer 11

microscopic examination of tissue in order to study the manifestation of disease

Question 12

what is cytology?

Answer 12

looking at individual cells

Question 13

what are characteristics of epithelial tissue?

Answer 13

protective, secretory, involved in absorption, contractile, made of collagen, fibroblasts

Question 14

what are the 5 methods of adaptation to cellular stress?

Answer 14

hypertrophy, hyperplasia, atrophy, metaplasia, dysplasia

Question 15

what are the causes of atrophy?

Answer 15

decrease workload, loss of innervation, inadequate blood supply, hormonal stimulation, nutrient supply

Question 16

what are the causes for hypertrophy?

Answer 16

increased workload, hormonal treatment, pathological hypertrophy

Question 17

what is enzyme induction

Answer 17

variant of hypertrophy in smooth endoplasmic reticulum of hepatocytes (liver). increases levels of enzymes

Question 18

what is metaplasia? where does it often happen?

Answer 18

substituting a cell type with another.
in the lungs (mucociliary transport system)

Question 19

what are dysplastic cells?

Answer 19

non-normal cells of non identical size and shape

Question 20

what is anaplasia?

Answer 20

progression of dysplasia due to genetic mutations leading to camcer

Question 21

when does cell damage become irreversible?

Answer 21

when the cell’s ultrastructure changes (although there is No distinct indicator of the boundary between reversible and lethal injury)

Question 22

what are the 4 target areas of cell injury?

Answer 22

mitochondria
plasma membrane
endoplasmic reticulum
nucleus

Question 23

what are the main cellular consequences of cellular damage

Answer 23

increased free calcium inside the cell, disruption of lysosomes, release of reactive oxygen species, interruption of protein synthesis, cytoskeleton damage

Question 24

what is the consequence of mitochondrial damage

Answer 24

decreased ATP production through decreased ion pump function at the plasma membrane and decreased oxidative phosphorylation.

Question 25

what organ is the most vulnerable?

Answer 25

brain

Question 26

what is ischemia

Answer 26

inadequate blood supply resulting in inadequate oxygen and nutrients supply

Question 27

what cell types are the most vulnerable to ischemia?

Answer 27

neurons

Question 28

5 causes of ischemia?

Answer 28

thrombus, embolus, pressure, plaque, spasm

Question 29

what causes impaired erythrocytes?

Answer 29

anemia or CO poisoning

Question 30

what is anemia

Answer 30

lack of red blood cells

Question 31

5 causes of physical injury

Answer 31

mechanical, thermal, altered pressure, radiation, electrical injury

Question 32

what is the most common cause of death by injury around the globe?

Answer 32

road traffic deaths

Question 33

what are the 3 types of microorganisms causing infectious diseases

Answer 33

viruses, bacteria, parasites

Question 34

how do bacterial toxins disrupt cell function?

Answer 34

damage to plasma membrane, cytoskeleton, mitochondria; disruption in protein synthesis, cell cycle, signal transduction, cell-cell adhesion, vesicular trafficking, exocytosis

Question 35

what activates cell mediated death?

Answer 35

infection of cell by a virus. prevents virus replication

Question 36

what is albinism

Answer 36

genetic abnormality that affects melanin synthesis

Question 37

what does NA+/K+ pump does?

Answer 37

pump 3 NA+ out the cell pump 2 K+ into the cell

Question 38

how does the cell respond to hypoxic injury?

Answer 38

acidification due to glycolysis (break down glycogen, produce lactic acid, decrease cell pH)

Question 39

what are the steps of hypoxic injury?

Answer 39

1. mitochondria swells -> ER dilates -> ribosomes detach (impaired protein synthesis) -> decreased oxidative phosphorylation

Question 40

what causes increased calcium entry during hypoxic injury?

Answer 40

plasma membrane breaks: Calcium enters cytosol from mitochondria and outside of cell

Question 41

what does increased calcium do?

Answer 41

increases lipid degradation and cytoskeletal damage?

Question 42

definition of a free radical?

Answer 42

molecule with an unpaired electron in its outer orbital. highly unstable; initiates rapid damage

Question 43

what are free radicals in the body called? give examples

Answer 43

reactive oxygen species ROS; superoxide, hydroxyl radical, peroxide

Question 44

what immune cells are specialized to form free radicals?

Answer 44

neutrophils and macrophages form ROS in lysosomal bags to kill bacteria.

Question 45

through what processes do free radical injury damage plasma and organelles membrane?

Answer 45

lipid peroxidation, protein modifications, DNA damage

Question 46

what organelle produces free radicals?

Answer 46

mitochondria. also removes them

Question 47

what 2 enzymes can deactivate free radicals?

Answer 47

superoxide dismutase and catalases

Question 48

what is coagulation vs liquefactive necrosis? what is in between both?

Answer 48

coagulation = tissue hardens and dead cell retains its outline liquafactive = tissue turns liquid by enzyme action combination = caseous necrosis

Question 49

what does caseous necrosis indicate?

Answer 49

tuberculosis

Question 50

what is gangrene?

Answer 50

ischemic necrosis followed by bacterial infection

Question 51

what leads to apoptosis (programmed cell death)?

Answer 51

imbalance between pro and anti-apoptotic proteins

Question 52

4 phenomenon involving apoptosis

Answer 52

healthy = embryogenesis and cell turnover bad = viral infections, neurodegenerative disease

Question 53

what molecules activates caspases and triggers apoptosis?

Answer 53

cytochrome C

Question 54

explain the intrinsic pathway for apoptosis initiation

Answer 54

mitochondria sense loss of GF/survival signals, increase of pro-apoptotic proteins, DNA damage, misfolded proteins, and initiates apoptosis; involves cytochrome C!!!

Question 55

explain the extrinsic pathway for apoptosis initiation

Answer 55

FasL bind Fas or type 1 TNF receptor -> activation of death receptors -> activation of caspases

Question 56

what are Fas ligand and TNFR! receptors linked to?

Answer 56

death domains on intracellular side

Question 57

what can block apoptosis?

Answer 57

NF-kB

Question 58

what molecule causes the breakdown of the cytoskeleton and fragmentation of the nucleus

Answer 58

caspases (involved in apoptosis)

Question 59

in what types of disease is apoptosis absent?

Answer 59

cancer or autoimmune disease

Question 60

what causes necrosis vs apoptosis?

Answer 60

necrosis is caused by hypoxia/ischemia and ROS; apoptosis is triggered by radiation, mutations, cell stress

Question 61

different types of intracellular accumulations

Answer 61

abnormal metabolism, defect in protein folding and transport, lack of an enzyme, ingestion of indigestible materials,

Question 62

name an example of abnormal metabolism

Answer 62

alcohol liver disease: accumulation of fat in the liver cells

Question 63

name examples of indigestible materials

Answer 63

silica, coal, tattoos, lipofuscin, melanin, calcium