Intro and the scientific method

Question 1

What are the 4 claims of science

Answer 1

• Rationality: Methods of inquiry that employ reason and evidence to achieve substantial and specified success in finding truth
• Truth: True statements which correspond with physical reality
• Objectivity: Objective beliefs concerning the physical world that can be tested and verified so that consensus will emerge among knowledgeable persons.
• Realism/Reality: The correspondence of human thoughts with an external and independent physical reality.

Question 2

What is the scientific method?

Answer 2

A rational method that provides humans with objective truth about physical reality

Question 3

What is PEL?

Answer 3

Presupposition: beliefs about the natural world that are necessary in order for any of the hypotheses under consideration to be meaningful and true.

Evidence: data that bear relevance to the credibility of the posed hypotheses. Evidence must be:
a. (1) Admissible = meaningful
b. (2) Relevant = bearing on the hypotheses at hand

Logic: active combination of presuppositions and evidence using valid reasoning to reach a conclusion

Question 4

Deductive reasoning

Answer 4

A deductive argument is valid if the truth of its premises guarantees the truth of its conclusions. It is invalid otherwise.

Question 5

Inductive reasoning

Answer 5

An inductive argument is strong if its premises support the truth of its conclusions to a considerable degree, and it is weak otherwise.

Question 6

What is a statistic?

Answer 6

• A number that describes a sample
• It is a field of mathematics that has developed methods that permit the estimation or prediction of the nature of measured parameters.

Question 7

Parameter

Answer 7

A quantity describing a population

Question 8

Data

Answer 8

Data (information) are measurements of a variable made on a population or a subset (Sample) of the population

Question 9

What are the 4 types of variables?

Answer 9

1) Categorial data: qualitative characteristics of individuals
a. Nominal variable: qualitative characteristics with no inherent order (a name)
b. Ordinal variable: qualitative characteristics that can be ordered, in which the order has meaning

2) Numerical data: quantitative measurements with magnitude on a numerical scale
a. Discrete variable: numerical data measured as integers (indivisible units), also called ‘count’ data
b. Continuous variable: numerical data that can take on a real‐number value within a specific range of values

Question 10

Simpson’s paradox

Answer 10

The existence of data for which a statistical association holds for a population but is reversed in a subpopulation
There are hidden variables which can mean that correlation does not imply causation

Question 11

Parisomy

Answer 11

Among the theories that fit the data equally well, choose the simplest theory.

Question 12

Observational vs experimental study

Answer 12

Observational study: a study where cause and effect are difficult to define. Variables of interest are measured, associated, and described. Assignment of subjects or objects to variables of interest is not made by the researcher.
Experimental study: treatment groups or values are chosen to measure cause and effect on a measured variable of interest. Subjects or objects in a study are randomly assigned to treatments.

Question 13

What is a ‘hidden’ variable?

Answer 13

Variables that have not been measured but affect the results, potentially leading to the wrong conclusions.

Question 14

Explain what is meant by: Correlation is not causation

Answer 14

If something correlated we cannot assume causation due to the potential influence of hidden variables.