Into the 20th century Flashcards
1
Q
What was Paul Ehrlich’s theory and how did he begin his research?
A
- Paul Ehrlich worked with Robert Koch using dyes to stain bacteria
- Believed that chemicals could act as magic bullets — targeting specific germs without harming healthy human tissue
- Focused his research on finding a cure for syphilis, a serious and widespread disease
- Began testing chemicals on rabbits infected with syphilis to see if they could cure the disease safely
2
Q
What did Ehrlich and Sahachiro Hata discover and why was it important?
A
- Sahachiro Hata, a Japanese bacteriologist, assisted Ehrlich in the research
- Together, they tested hundreds of compounds
- In a retest, Hata discovered that compound 606 (Salvarsan) cured syphilis without harming the host
- Named Salvarsan 606 — the first magic bullet
- After successful human trials, it became the first chemical cure for a bacterial disease, starting a new era in medicine
3
Q
Why were magic bullets significant in medical history?
A
- Salvarsan 606, discovered by Ehrlich and Hata, was the first magic bullet — a chemical that killed specific bacteria without harming the body
- Paved the way for research into other targeted treatments
- In 1935, Gerhard Domagk discovered Prontosil, the second magic bullet, which killed streptococcal bacteria (causes serious infections)
- Inspired further research into natural substances that fight infections
- This research eventually led to the development of penicillin, a breakthrough in antibiotics and modern medicine
4
Q
Who was Alexander Fleming and what did he discover in 1928?
A
- Alexander Fleming was a Scottish doctor working at St Mary’s Hospital, London
- In 1928, he returned from holiday and found mould growing on a Petri dish of Staphylococcus bacteria
- Noticed that bacteria near the mould had been destroyed
- Identified the mould as Penicillium
- Discovered it produced a substance that killed bacteria — later named penicillin
- Published his findings but did not develop it into a usable medicine
5
Q
What role did Florey and Chain play in developing penicillin?
A
- In 1935, Howard Florey and Ernst Chain at Oxford University revisited Fleming’s work
- Worked to purify penicillin and test it as a treatment
- By 1941, they had enough to test on a human: Albert Alexander, a policeman
- Penicillin began to heal his infection, but supplies ran out and he died
- Their work proved that penicillin could cure infections if mass-produced
6
Q
Why was Albert Alexander important in the story of penicillin?
A
- First human trial of purified penicillin
- Infected wound from gardening led to a life-threatening illness
- Penicillin caused a dramatic improvement in his condition
- Not enough supply to complete treatment — he relapsed and died
- Showed the potential power of antibiotics and the urgent need for large-scale production
7
Q
How did World War Two help the development of penicillin?
A
- Florey and Chain went to the USA seeking help with production
- The US government gave $3 million to fund the work
- By 1944, there was enough penicillin for every injured soldier on D-Day
- War accelerated the need for effective treatments for wounded soldiers
- Marked a turning point in the mass production of antibiotics
8
Q
What was the impact of penicillin after World War Two?
A
- Production methods improved — penicillin became widely available
- First effective antibiotic to treat bacterial infections
- Led to the antibiotic revolution, saving millions of lives
- Inspired research into other antibiotics (e.g. streptomycin, tetracycline)
- Greatly reduced deaths from infections after surgery, injury, and childbirth
9
Q
Why was the discovery and development of penicillin significant?
A
- First example of a natural substance turned into a powerful medicine
- Proved that scientific collaboration (Fleming, Florey, Chain) was vital
- Changed medical treatment forever — antibiotics became essential
- Helped disprove miasma theory by reinforcing germ-based treatments
- Demonstrated the importance of government funding and global cooperation in medicine
10
Q
Who discovered the structure of DNA and how?
A
- Rosalind Franklin used X-rays in the 1950s to take images of DNA molecules
- Her work provided crucial evidence for understanding DNA’s structure
- In 1953, James Watson (American geneticist) and Francis Crick (British researcher) used Franklin’s X-ray images
- They discovered DNA’s double helix structure
- Published their findings in the journal Nature
- Their discovery explained how genetic information is passed on
11
Q
Why was the discovery of DNA’s structure important?
A
- Helped scientists understand genetic illness by showing how traits are inherited
- Led to the development of genetic testing and treatments
- Laid the foundation for a new field of medicine: genetic medicine
- Enabled the future development of gene therapy, personalised medicine, and the Human Genome Project
- Revolutionised biology, medicine, and the way diseases are diagnosed and treated
12
Q
What major surgical breakthroughs have occurred since 1945?
A
- 1967: Christiaan Barnard performed the first successful heart transplant in South Africa
- Huge step forward in organ transplant surgery
- Opened the door for future life-saving transplants (liver,
lungs, kidneys)
- 2005: First partial face transplant in France
- 2010: First full face transplant in Spain
- Improved quality of life for people with severe facial
injuries
- Improved quality of life for people with severe facial
Combined plastic surgery, immunosuppressants, and reconstructive techniques
13
Q
How have technology and modern techniques improved surgery?
A
- Laser surgery:
- Used for precise cutting in areas like eye surgery, tumor
removal, and blood vessel repair - Less bleeding and quicker healing
- Used for precise cutting in areas like eye surgery, tumor
- Keyhole surgery (also known as laparoscopic surgery):
- Involves small incisions and a microscopic camera
- Reduces risk of infection, scarring, and recovery time
- Common for procedures like gallbladder removal, hernia
repair, and appendectomies
- Overall, surgery is now less invasive, safer, and more efficient thanks to these innovations
14
Q
What is mainstream medicine?
A
- Treatment provided by trained medical professionals (doctors, nurses)
- Uses scientific methods for diagnosis, treatment, and prevention
- Based on clinical trials, peer-reviewed research, and evidence-based practices
- Delivered largely through the NHS in the UK
- Examples: vaccines, surgery, antibiotics, chemotherapy
15
Q
What are alternative and complementary medicines?
A
- Treatments outside of mainstream medicine
- Often lack scientific testing or consistent evidence of effectiveness
- May be used alongside (complementary) or instead of (alternative) conventional treatments
- Increasingly popular for chronic conditions or well-being support
16
Q
xamples of alternative and complementary therapies
A
Acupuncture: Thin needles inserted into the body; used for pain relief and relaxation
Yoga: Combines movement, breathing, and meditation to improve mental health and flexibility
Hypnotherapy: Guided relaxation used to treat phobias, anxiety, and aid habit changes (e.g. quitting smoking)
Herbal remedies: Use of plant-based substances to treat immune issues, pain, or mental health challenges
17
Q
What is antibiotic resistance and why is it a concern?
A
- Occurs when bacteria mutate and become resistant to antibiotics
- Makes it harder to treat common infections
- Can lead to longer illnesses, more hospital stays, and increased risk of death
18
Q
Causes of antibiotic resistance
A
- Overuse of antibiotics in humans and animals
- Not completing full antibiotic courses
- Use of antibiotics in livestock farming, which can spread resistant bacteria
- Misuse in viral infections (antibiotics only work on bacteria)
- Resistant bacteria include MRSA (Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus) — a common “superbug”
19
Q
How is medicine responding to antibiotic resistance?
A
- Researching new antibiotics to treat resistant infections
- Developing alternatives to antibiotics, such as phage therapy (using viruses that target bacteria)
- Promoting antibiotic stewardship — only using antibiotics when absolutely necessary
- Global public health campaigns to raise awareness
- Encouraging better hygiene in hospitals and communities to reduce infections
