A revolution in medicine Flashcards
1
Q
What were the three main problems with surgery in 1800, and how did they affect operations?
A
- The three problems were pain, infection, and blood loss.
- Because of these issues, surgery had to be very quick.
- Surgeons like Robert Liston could amputate a leg in under 40 seconds.
- Many patients still died afterwards due to infection or blood loss.
2
Q
What early anaesthetics were discovered before chloroform, and what were their problems?
A
- Nitrous oxide (laughing gas) was discovered by Humphry Davy in 1799 but not taken seriously.
- Horace Wells failed to prove it worked during a public demo, which made people doubt it.
- William Morton introduced ether, which was effective but had side effects (nausea, sore throat) and was flammable.
3
Q
What did James Simpson discover in 1847, and why was it important for surgery?
A
- James Simpson discovered chloroform as an effective general anaesthetic.
- It replaced ether because it was more reliable and easier to use.
- It allowed longer and more complex surgeries without pain, helping move surgery forward.
4
Q
Why did some people oppose the use of anaesthetics in the 1800s?
A
- Religious groups believed pain (especially in childbirth) was part of God’s plan.
- Anaesthetics were risky — Hannah Greener died from an overdose of chloroform.
- Some army surgeons said pain helped them understand what the patient was feeling and whether they were still alive.
5
Q
How was opposition to anaesthetics, like chloroform, overcome in the 1850s?
A
- John Snow invented a chloroform inhaler in the 1850s
- Allowed doctors to control dosage
- Made anaesthetic use safer and more reliable
- Mixed chloroform with water vapour for easier
breathing
- Queen Victoria used chloroform in 1853 during childbirth
- Praised it as “blessed chloroform”
- Her use helped change public opinion and boosted trust
in anaesthetics
6
Q
What was Spontaneous Generation, and why was it a problem?
A
- People believed germs appeared by themselves at the site of disease
- This theory suggested germs were a result of illness, not the cause
- It slowed progress in understanding disease and finding treatments
7
Q
What did Louis Pasteur discover about germs and disease?
A
- French chemist asked to find out why wine was going off
- Used a microscope to see bacteria (microbes) in the wine
- Heated the wine to kill bacteria – led to pasteurisation
- Realised microbes caused decay, not the other way around
8
Q
How did Pasteur’s swan neck flask experiment disprove spontaneous generation?
A
- Boiled broth in swan neck flasks to kill microbes
- Broke the neck off one flask → it became contaminated
- Sealed flask stayed clean → proved germs came from the air
- Published Germ Theory in 1861, changing medical science forever
9
Q
What did Robert Koch contribute to germ theory?
A
- German doctor who built on Pasteur’s work
- Used industrial dyes to stain bacteria, making them visible
- In 1876, identified the bacteria that caused anthrax
- First time a specific germ was linked to a specific disease
- Helped lead to development of vaccines and treatments
10
Q
How did Pasteur discover the chicken cholera vaccine?
A
- Working with Charles Chamberland to cure chicken cholera
- Chamberland used old cholera germs by mistake → chickens didn’t get sick
- Then used fresh germs, and the chickens still didn’t get sick
- Pasteur realised the old germs gave immunity
- Discovery led to vaccines for anthrax and rabies
11
Q
How did Pasteur and Koch’s rivalry help the fight against disease?
A
- France and Germany were rivals during the Franco-Prussian War (1870–71)
- Both countries funded medical research for national pride
- Competition pushed them to work faster and harder
- Led to quicker breakthroughs in germ identification and vaccines
12
Q
What role did technology play in Pasteur and Koch’s discoveries?
A
- Microscopes became stronger, allowing better observation
- Julius Richard Petri (Koch’s assistant) invented the Petri dish
- Koch grew bacteria in Petri dishes and stained them to identify germs
- Technology allowed scientists to see and study microbes clearly
13
Q
How did chance help the development of vaccines?
A
- Pasteur’s chicken cholera vaccine was discovered by accident
- Chamberland forgot to refrigerate germs over a holiday
- When injected into chickens, they didn’t become sick → had immunity
- Showed that weakened microbes could protect against disease
- Chance helped lead to planned vaccine development
14
Q
How did war help the fight against disease?
A
- The Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871) increased rivalry between France and Germany
- Both governments invested in medical research to prove their nation’s superiority
- Pasteur (France) and Koch (Germany) were supported and encouraged to make breakthroughs
- War created urgency and national pride, speeding up discoveries
15
Q
How did key individuals help develop Germ Theory and fight disease?
A
- Louis Pasteur: Disproved spontaneous generation, developed Germ Theory, discovered vaccines
- Robert Koch: Proved specific bacteria cause specific diseases, identified anthrax germ
- Charles Chamberland: Pasteur’s assistant, helped discover chicken cholera vaccine by accident
- Julius Richard Petri: Invented Petri dish to grow bacteria
- All used careful observation, experiments, and persistence over many years
16
Q
Why was infection a major risk in surgery before Pasteur’s germ theory?
A
- Germs could enter wounds during surgery, causing infections
- No antibiotics meant infections were often fatal
- Surgeons lacked knowledge of germ theory, making it hard to prevent infection
- Post-surgery infections led to high mortality rates
17
Q
What did Joseph Lister contribute to making surgery safer?
A
- Scottish surgeon who applied Pasteur’s germ theory to surgery
- Used carbolic acid to soak bandages and sterilize wounds
- Found that carbolic acid prevented infections and helped wounds heal
- Carbolic acid spray was used to sterilize air and equipment during surgery
- Reduced mortality rates in surgery from 40% to 15%
18
Q
What were the challenges and opposition to using carbolic acid in surgery?
A
- Irritated eyes and skin of surgeons, making surgery uncomfortable
- Instruments became slippery due to acid exposure
- Carbolic acid spray machine was seen as a distraction and inconvenient
- Some surgeons opposed its use due to these practical issues
19
Q
How did William Halsted contribute to improving surgery after the problems with carbolic acid?
A
- American surgeon who addressed issues with carbolic acid
- Worked with a tyre company to create rubber gloves for surgeons
- Gloves helped protect hands and prevented dry skin from carbolic acid
- Encouraged aseptic surgery: sterilized equipment and hands to avoid infection
- Reduced the need for carbolic acid during surgery
20
Q
How did Karl Landsteiner’s discovery in 1901 improve surgery?
A
- Karl Landsteiner discovered blood groups in 1901
- Enabled successful blood transfusions
- Reduced the risk of blood loss during surgery
- Made longer and more complex surgeries much safer
21
Q
Why was there opposition to germ theory in Britain?
A
- Louis Pasteur’s germ theory was revolutionary, leading to widespread skepticism
- Many high-profile doctors refused to accept it, instead believing in spontaneous generation
- Some mocked the idea that germs could cause disease rather than being a result of it
- Henry Bastian, an English surgeon, was a key opponent of the theory
22
Q
Who was Henry Bastian, and what did he believe?
A
- English surgeon who rejected Pasteur’s germ theory
- Believed that germs came from spontaneous generation
- Argued that germs appeared as a symptom of disease,
not the cause
- Argued that germs appeared as a symptom of disease,
- Wrote books and articles opposing germ theory
- His views were popular among some doctors in Britain
23
Q
How did John Tyndall help support germ theory?
A
- John Tyndall, an English scientist, proved spontaneous generation was wrong
- Conducted an experiment with sterile air and non-sterile air
- Meat and fish in sterile air didn’t spoil, but they did in
non-sterile air
- Meat and fish in sterile air didn’t spoil, but they did in
- Showed that microbes in the air were responsible for spoilage and disease
- Shared his findings with Pasteur, helping to support germ theory’s acceptance
24
Q
What did William Roberts do to support germ theory?
A
- William Roberts, a Welsh physician, proved spontaneous generation was incorrect
- Conducted experiments in the 1870s to challenge old beliefs
- Supported Lister’s carbolic spray, showing it prevented infection in surgery
- Argued it protected people from serious illness after surgery by killing germs
25
How did William Cheyne contribute to the spread of germ theory and antiseptics in surgery?
- William Cheyne, Scottish surgeon, worked alongside Lister
- Saw the effectiveness of carbolic acid in preventing infection during surgery
- Studied Robert Koch’s work and translated it into English, spreading Koch’s research
- Wrote books on antiseptics in surgery and helped promote Koch’s research in England
