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Interviewing witnesses Flashcards

1
Q

What is eyewitness testimony? (1)

A

The evidence given by witnesses to a
crime typically in the form of a verbal
account or person identification

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2
Q

What are episodic memories? (2)

A

Memories for personally
experienced events
Contains details of what, when, and where something happened

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3
Q

Why is research on human memory important for the law? (3)

A

Memory needs to be accurate
Eyewitness evidence is perceived by
jurors to be compelling
Eyewitness misidentification is the
leading cause of wrongful conviction

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4
Q

Post-conviction DNA exoneration
cases in US (3)

A

Many of these served time on
death row
Fourteen years – average
length of time served
Eyewitness misidentification is a
factor in around 70% of cases
(the biggest single cause)

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5
Q

What are the three stages in which memory processing occurs? (3)

A

Stage 1 - acquisition/encoding
Stage 2 - storage/retention
Stage 3 - Retrieval

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6
Q

What is acquisition/encoding and why is it important? (3)

A

Information the person perceives

What is encoded (learned) is critical because it forms the basis for what is stored and eventually
retrieved

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7
Q

What are the factors that can affect the quality of information that is encoded in a crime situation? (5)

A

Exposure duration
Crime seriousness
Violence
Weapon presence
Perpetrator characteristics e.g. Disguises

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8
Q

What is bottom-up processing? (3)

A

Processing that is determined
directly by the environmental
stimuli rather than by the
individual’s knowledge and
experience

Data driven

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9
Q

What is top-down processing? (2)

A

Stimulus processing that is
determined by expectations,
memory and knowledge
rather than directly by the
stimulus

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10
Q

What is perceptual set? (2)

A

Use past experiences and environmental context to perceive stimuli in a certain way

Cues can ‘set’ the individual to interpret impoverished information in a certain way

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11
Q

What are schemas? (3)

A

A mental framework or body of knowledge that helps us to make sense of familiar situations

They guide our expectations and provide a framework within which new information is processed and organised

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12
Q

What do we have schemas for? (4)

A

Specific people (e.g., one’s best friend)
Groups of people (e.g., traffic wardens)
Roles (e.g., how you should behave at the theatre)
Places and objects

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13
Q

What are ‘scripts’? (3)

A

Common schemas for events e.g. how to order food in a restaurant

Can have schemas for events never witnessed e.g. what a typical robbery would involve

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14
Q

What is the schema theory? (2)

A

Suggests that we
remember items better if
they fit in with our schema
and previous experiences

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15
Q

What are the factors that can affect encoding? (4)

A

Things that we already know, believe or expect
Situational influences
Other cognitive factors, such as attention

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16
Q

What is storage/retention? (1)

A

Information a person stores in memory

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17
Q

Who created the forgetting curve in 1885? (1)

A

Ebbinghaus

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18
Q

What does the Ebbinghaus (1885) forgetting curve show? (1)

A

The curve shows an
inverse relationship
between memory and the
retention interval

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19
Q

What is encoding specificity? (3)

A

The link between encoding and retrieval

Only aspects of our
experience which are
specifically attended to
during the study situation
are certain to be encoded

Memory is enhanced when
conditions present during
retrieval match those that
were present during
encoding

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20
Q

What did Tulving, 1979 suggest about encoding specificity (1)

A

What is remembered later
depends on the similarity of the
retrieval situation to the original
encoding conditions

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21
Q

When does retrieval of failure occur? (2)

A

The memory trace is no longer
stored in memory
The memory trace is stored in
memory, but cannot be accessed

22
Q

What are the two different types of retrieval? (2)

A

Recall
Recognition

23
Q

What is recall? (2)

A

A person brings to mind information in response to a cue.
The cue may be non-specific or specifi

24
Q

What is recognition? (1)

A

When participants must judge whether the information
presented to them has been previously encountered

25
Why do participants recognise information better than they recall it? (1)
Recognition provides more relevant cues to retrieval
26
Does eyewitness memory involve recalling or recognition? (1)
Recalling
27
What are the non-optimal interviewing strategies identified in analysis of police interviews? (6)
Frequently interrupting the witness’s narrative Over-talking on the part of the police officer Excessive use of closed questions – short answers Use of leading or suggestive questions Rarely using open questions Inappropriate timing and sequencing of questions
28
How do the non-optimal interviewing strategies lead to less accurate recall? (4)
Questioning styles interrupt witness concentration Discourage elaboration Restrict the witness to reporting requested information only Encourage the use of ineffective and superficial retrieval attempts
29
What did Wright & Alison (2004) investigate? (1)
Confirmation bias Analysed a sample of interviews given by the Canadian Police
30
What did Wright & Alison (2004) find about confirmation bias? (5)
Interviews predominantly began with closed questions (which, who, when, where) Followed by abrupt, rapid-fire yes/no questions Police officers may have preconceived beliefs concerning the event An investigator may direct the witness to focus on aspects of the event which they believe are relevant Yes/no questions are used to seek confirmation of a particular account
31
What are the 4 principles of the cognitive interview? (4)
Mental context reinstatement Report everything Reverse order Change perspective
32
What is mental context reinstatement in the cognitive interview? (3)
The witness is encouraged to recall the context in which they saw the event including the sights and sounds at the time of the event, how they were feeling and what they were thinking at the time of the incident
33
Aim of mental context reinstatement (1)
Aims to increase the number of retrieval cues by reinstating the psychological context in which the event was encoded
34
What is report everything in the cognitive interview? (3)
The witness is allowed to engage in free recall without interruption from the police interviewer The witness may be asked to remember everything they possibly can, no matter how small a detail seems to be
35
Aim of report everything (2)
To increase the number of retrieval cues elicited by the witness by reinstating the psychological context in which the event was encoded This instruction ensures the witness’s chain of thought is not interrupted
36
What is reverse order in the cognitive interview? (3)
The witness is encouraged to begin their description of an event from different starting points e.g., starting at the end and working backwards The different orders may activate different cues and hence lead to more details being recalled
37
Aim of reverse order (1)
To circumvent the “filling in” of information using scripts
38
What is change perspective in the cognitive interview? (3)
Witnesses are encouraged to try to give an account of the event from the point of view of another person, such as another witness This instruction is not always used by the police as the information obtained may be construed as “hearsay”
39
Aim of change perspective (2)
To increase the number of retrieval cues available to tap into the memory of the event and avoid filling in gaps
40
Which researchers investigated effectiveness of the cognitive interview? (4)
Geiselman et al. (1984) Köhnken et al., (1999) - meta-analysis Memon et al. (2010) - meta-analysis Mosser & Evans (2019)
41
What did Geiselman et al. (1984) do and find about the effectiveness of the cognitive interview (CI)? (3)
16 participants saw a staged event during lecture CI group produced more correct information after 48 hours No difference in amount of incorrect information (though meta-analysis by Köhnken et al., (1999) did not support this)
42
What did Memon et al. (2010) find about the effectiveness of the cognitive interview (CI)? (1)
Confirmed Köhnken et al.’s findings
43
What did Mosser & Evans (2019) find about the effectiveness of the cognitive interview (CI)? (2)
Found the CI elicited more information during contact tracing compared to a standard interview, but not when illness was simulated
44
What are the additional techniques of the cognitive interview? (2)
Open-depth Re-enactment
45
What is open-depth in the CI? (4)
Encourages a further round of recall Uses instructions to focus explicitly on all ‘the little details’ not able to be reported first time Open Depth yielded more correct information, with lots of surrounding details that are typically not reported by witnesses, outperformed both change perspective and motivated recall
46
What is re-enactment in the CI? (2)
Focus on actions and accessing verbatim memories (not gist), these are less susceptible to influence from schemas Reported more correct information and more action details
47
What does the standard CI focus on? (1)
On using knowledge of how memory works to aid the retrieval process
48
What factors can affect retrieval in an interview situation? (2)
Social dynamics Communication
49
What does the enhanced CI focus on? (2)
Has evolved to incorporate communication and cognitive techniques which work in tandem e.g., Establish rapport, transfer control of interview to witness, enhancing the listening skills of interviewer, reduce intimidation
50
Does the enhanced CI improve witness recall? (3)
Fisher, Geiselman & Amador (1989) - found ECI elicited 47% more information with high corroboration rates Meta-analysis of CI/ECI performance in laboratory studies shows overall increase in correct details compared to a standard interview Crossland et al. (2020) found the ECI beneficial with intoxicated witnesses
51
Why do the police not use cognitive interview? (2)
Time consuming Difficult to explain instructions to witnesses

Forensic Psychology (10 decks)

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