Interpretations and Debates Over Congress

Question 1

How have the domestic policy roles of Congress changed? - Debates over Congress

Answer 1

Congress is able to levy a federal income tax as a result of the 16th Amendment, government has grown at a federal level since the 1930s New Deal (leading to a growth in national legislation).

Question 2

How has increased party polarisation and partisanship changed the powers of Congress? - Debates over Congress

Answer 2

Increased party polarisation and partisanship has made increasingly difficult to legislate in times of divided government, meaning that it can often be an obstructive body. Furthermore, it can also mean that scrutiny of the President is either excessive or extremely lacking depending on whether government is united or divided.

Question 3

How many of Johnson’s 87 ‘Great Society’ bills were passed under united government? - Debates over Congress

Answer 3

LBJ’s ‘Great Society’ agenda saw 84/87 bills passed by a united Congress.

Question 4

How has the role of Congress in Foreign Policy changed? - Debates over Congress

Answer 4

Congress retains the power to declare war (although this is hardly used), while it now sanctions military action desired by the President. Presidents have a substantial role in foreign policy, with only the Senate able to restrict the signing of treaties. Power of the Purse may control action but realistically FP is the President’s domain.

Question 5

How has the 1973 War Powers Act changed the foreign policy roles of Congress? - Debates over Congress

Answer 5

The 1973 War Powers Act made it the case that the President has the power to take military action, but this must be approved by Congress within 90 days. Provided only a retrospective control on military action for Congress.

Question 6

When has the power of the purse been used to limit the President’s foreign policy ambitions? - Debates over Congress

Answer 6

In 2007, a Democrat controlled Congress restricted funding for Bush’s war in Iraq.

Question 7

What arguments exist that Congress is successful in its role at representing the US? - Debates over Congress

Answer 7

Congress has never been more diverse in terms of social characteristics, frequent elections mean views are constantly considered, members can adopt both trustee and delegate models of representation, caucuses in Congress represent diverse and wide-ranging groups and views.

Question 8

What arguments exist that Congress does not succeed in its representative function? - Debates over Congress

Answer 8

Minority groups and women are still under-represented in Congress, gerrymandering occurs to create political inertia, FPTP reinforces a strict 2 party system, pressure groups may distort representation by exploiting and subverting traditional democracy, caucuses may not adequately represent views.

Question 9

What structural reasons are there for the reduced significance of parties in the US than in the UK? - Debates over Congress

Answer 9

The separation of powers between the Executive and the Presidency means that party leaders have limited influence over the President, states have their federal powers ring-fenced from interference by party leaders, bicameralism means that chambers largely operate independently of each other with their own priorities.

Question 10

What evidence exists that theories of party decline were exaggerated and that parties are actually a significant force? - Debates over Congress

Answer 10

The Republican Party succeeded in quickly recovering from the Watergate Scandal, the Democratic Party has undergone a resurgence under a more moderate stance since Clinton. PARTIES STILL CONTROL CONGRESS AND ITS WORKINGS.

Question 11

What evidence is there of national campaigns supporting the idea of party renewal? - Debates over Congress

Answer 11

The 1994 Republican midterm campaign was dubbed the ‘Contract With America’, with this acting to overrule traditional state-based campaigns. Focussed on conservative policy.
The Democrats similarly led the ‘Six for 06’ national midterm campaign to create party cohesion. Led to them taking both houses of Congress.

Question 12

What arguments exist that a centralisation of power within the party leadership has led to party renewal? - Debates over Congress

Answer 12

The decline in the use of conference committees indicates that parties are able to easily resolve factional disputes. Furthermore, party leaders now determine who sits as the chair of congressional committees and who sits on these, centralising the control of party leaders over key bodies for scrutiny.

Question 13

What was the ideological overlap between parties in Congress in 2019? - Debates over Congress

Answer 13

In 2019, only 2 Senators had any ideological overlap, with the Democrat Joe Manchin and Republican Susan Collins having matching ideologies.

Question 14

What was the ideological overlap between parties in 2015? What was the ideological overlap in 1982? - Debates over Congress

Answer 14

In 2015, there was no ideological overlap between parties. In 1982, there was significant overlap, with the most conservative Democrat being more right-wing than the most liberal Republican.

Question 15

How does increased partisanship indicate that party renewal has taken place? - Debates over Congress

Answer 15

Party renewal is indicated by increased partisanship as this suggests that parties are now increasingly provocative and willing to oppose each other, suggesting that individual parties are more important and have distinctive ideological views.

Question 16

Why are lack of incentives an argument against party renewal? - Debates over Congress

Answer 16

Members of Congress favour appealing to constituents rather than satisfying their own party leadership, while candidates tend to organise their own campaigns and funding independent of party leadership. Parties have no control over candidate selection. There is no Presidential patronage towards members of Congress.

Question 17

What evidence is there of the lack of incentives during the Trump presidency? (2) - Debates over Congress

Answer 17

House Speaker Paul Ryan struggled to get Republicans to support Trump’s budget in 2018.
Senate Majority Leader failed to get Republicans to support the repeal of Obamacare.

Question 18

How has the reduction of party communication with voters resulted in party decline? - Debates over Congress

Answer 18

Party rallies and meetings are no longer as important to the wider population in terms of political communication, with individual members now largely coordinating their own meetings and rallies, as well as social media growing in importance.

Question 19

How does the emergence of movements indicate the decline of traditional parties? - Debates over Congress

Answer 19

Tea Party/Occupy/BLM Movements have demonstrated that Americans are now increasingly likely to involve themselves in politics through alternative methods rather than involvement with parties. Has also seen parties become broad groupings.

Question 20

What arguments exist that Congress is effective? - Debates over Congress

Answer 20

Congress can legislate on extremely important matters, Founding Fathers want limited government through legislative difficulty, checks and balances/supermajorities aim to create consensus and bipartisanship, provides representation of communities and political views.

Question 21

What arguments exist that Congress is ineffective? - Debates over Congress

Answer 21

Congress has a hugely low success rate in terms of passing legislation, party polarisation and partisanship prevents government from being effective, presidential vetoes can override the will of a representative body, filibusters can obstruct debate, scrutiny is non-existent under united government.

Question 22

What evidence is there of the increased legislative significance of Congress as the federal government has grown? - Debates over Congress

Answer 22

Congress has become increasingly important legislatively by passing vital legislation such as the Patriot Act to coordinate the 9/11 response, the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act 2008 to recover after the financial crash, the 2020 CARES Act and the 1930s New Deal.

Question 23

What factors can impact the amount of scrutiny a President faces from Congress? - Debates over Congress

Answer 23

Under divided government scrutiny may be excessive and lead to political point scoring, united government can give a government a free pass from any opposition, approval ratings being high can lead to Congress being hesitant to scrutinise the government, a large mandate can result in a president receiving minimal scrutiny, national crises can encourage bipartisan cooperation and allow a President to avoid oversight.

Question 24

What structural similarities are there between Congress and Parliament? What nuance is there to this? - Debates over Congress

Answer 24

Congress and Parliament are both bicameral legislatures, yet in the US the powers of each chamber are equal whereas in the UK the Commons can assert its superiority over the Lords as the senior chamber.

Question 25

What structural differences exist between Congress and Parliament over who CONTROLS the legislature? - Debates over Congress

Answer 25

In the US, Congress operates largely independently of the Executive and can introduce its own legislation easily. In the UK, Parliament is subservient to the Executive, as its members make up the government. The Executive has a great degree of control over Parliament and determines its agenda.

Question 26

Which body has more power to check the Executive, Congress or Parliament? List these powers - Debates over Congress

Answer 26

Congress arguably has greater powers than Parliament, as it has the power to ratify treaties, impeach a President, approve appointments and introduce legislation of its own accord.

Question 27

How is the carrying out of oversight different in the US compared to the UK? - Debates over Congress

Answer 27

In the US, the separation of powers and branches of government means that Congress struggles to directly scrutinise a President (they are largely only accountable to the electorate). The UK’s fusion of powers means that the Executive can be held to account by Parliament, largely through questioning and DSCs.

Question 28

How is the quality of representation of constituent views different between the UK and US? - Debates over Congress

Answer 28

In the UK, representation is very party oriented, meaning that MPs tend to represent their party over constituents due to the power of these bodies. In the US, constituent views are more significant and there is greater leeway for individuals to deviate from the views of their party and respond to local opinion. ACCOUNTABILITY.

Question 29

What are strengths and weaknesses of the House of Representatives? - Debates over Congress

Answer 29

Strengths: can draw up impeachment articles, strong constituency links and accountability with 2 year term, has first consideration of money bills.
Weaknesses: Exec members cannot appear in this chamber (only standing committees), President unaccountable to Congress, gridlock under divided government.

Question 30

What are strengths and weaknesses of the House of Commons? - Debates over Congress

Answer 30

Strengths: has Exec presence for scrutiny, select committees conduct scrutiny, PMQs, backbenchers have power.
Weaknesses: is dominated by government, PMQs ineffective at holding govt to account, party strength undermines constituency representation.

Question 31

What are strengths and weaknesses of the Senate? - Debates over Congress

Answer 31

Strengths: has powers to obstruct Exec actions (impeachment trials, treaties, appointments), equal powers to the House.
Weaknesses: Exec members cannot appear on floor (only committees), gridlock created by equal legislative powers, unaccountable over 6 years.

Question 32

What strengths and weaknesses are there of the House of Lords? - Debates over Congress

Answer 32

Strengths: allow experience and expertise to scrutinise govt, less partisan than the Commons, not subject to pressures of election, cannot veto elected Commons.
Weaknesses: lacks democratic mandate, only delays rather than blocks legislation, seen as chamber of elites and political failures.