Functions of Congress

Question 1

What is the trustee model of representation? What does this aim to achieve? - Functions of Congress

Answer 1

The trustee model sees elected members provided with the responsibility to make decisions by others. This is based on rational, mature and informed judgements by elected individuals which avoid giving in to the will of the majority. Prevents populist measures that are not in the interests of the whole country.

Question 2

What is the delegate model of representation? What does this aim to achieve? - Functions of Congress

Answer 2

Elected individuals are chosen to act on behalf of others in accordance with the wishes of the electorate. This links to the idea of popular sovereignty and empowering the public when making political decisions.

Question 3

What example is there of Republicans using the trustee model of representation? What example is there of Republicans using the delegate model of representation? - Functions of Congress

Answer 3

Trustee model: 3 Republican Senators prevented Trump from repealing Obama’s healthcare legislation due to the lack of a viable alternative.
Delegate model: some Republicans voted against the impeachment of Trump due to his popularity in their home states as they wished to retain their electorate’s support and act on their behalf.

Question 4

What is pork barrell politics? How does this influence the incumbency effect? - Functions of Congress

Answer 4

Pork barrell politics is where districts and states recieve federal funds as a result of congressional lobbying. In instances where an elected individual has attracted funding for the area they represent, this is likely to endear them to their constituents and contribute to their re-election.

Question 5

What is a fundraising advantage? How does this contribute to the incumbency effect? - Functions of Congress

Answer 5

The fundraising advantage is where incumbents are able to attract increased levels of funding compared to their challengers as a result of their position, hence meaning that they can outspend challengers and likely be victorious in any election.

Question 6

What is gerrymandering? How does this contribute to the incumbency effect? - Functions of Congress

Answer 6

Gerrymandering is where congressional districts are redrawn in order to gain a political advantage. By dispersing the support of the governing party across a state and concentrating the support of the opposing party, a state’s governing party is likely to consolidate and secure their position as the opposing party will win fewer congressional districts.

Question 7

How do name recognition and the offering of constituency services contribute to the incumbency effect? - Functions of Congress

Answer 7

By being recognisable names within a community and providing services to their constituents, incumbents are more likely to be re-elected as they have been able to endear themselves to their electorate in a way that their challengers would not have been able to.

Question 8

What % of House members were re-elected in 2020? What % of Senate members were re-elected in 2020? - Functions of Congress

Answer 8

95% of House members were re-elected in 2020, while 83% of Senators were re-elected in the same year.

Question 9

How much money was spent on pork barrel politics in 2019? What specific example is there of this taking place in Boston? - Functions of Congress

Answer 9

In 2019, $15.3bn was spent on pork barrel politics.
In Boston, the Big Dig Highway was initially budgeted for a cost of $3bn, eventually costing over $14bn as a result of congressional lobbying to gain the favour of constituents.

Question 10

In 2018, by how many times did incumbent Senators outraised their challengers? By how many times did incumbent House members outraised their challengers? - Functions of Congress

Answer 10

In 2018, incumbent Senators outraised their challengers 7 times. Incumbent House members outraised their challengers 8 times.

Question 11

Where in the US did a majority of votes go to Democrats but more seats go to Republicans in 2020? Why? - Functions of Congress

Answer 11

In North Carolina, Democrats won a majority of votes but a minority of seats as their votes were concentrated in fewer congressional districts, meaning that they could not win as many seats in the state.

Question 12

What is a unity vote in Congress? What example is there of this (what bill, what issue, which parties supporting/opposing)? - Functions of Congress

Answer 12

A unity vote in Congress is where a majority of one party vote against the majority of the opposing party. This was seen with the 2016 Federal Information Systems Safeguard Act, which concerned the security of Federal Information Systems. 237 Republicans approved this while 179 Democrats rejected this.

Question 13

What examples are there of a moderate Republican voting with Democrats and conservative Democrats voting with Republicans? - Functions of Congress

Answer 13

Moderate Republican - Senator Susan Collins

Conservative Democrats - Congressman Jim Cooper

Question 14

What are Congressional Caucuses? What are 3 examples of this? - Functions of Congress

Answer 14

Congressional Caucuses are groups with a collection of elected members that can be from either party. Used to advance certain interests and represent particular identities. Examples include the Blue Dog Coalition of conservative Democrats, the House Freedom Caucus (extreme RW), Congressional Steel Caucus of individuals representing steel manufacturing areas.

Question 15

What are the 3 main functions of Congressional Caucuses? - Functions of Congress

Answer 15

Educational: providing information on proposed legislation and policies.
Agenda setting: may persuade colleagues to support legislation, advance causes with party leadership, work collaboratively to get legislation on a congressional agenda.
Encouraging support: may advance support for proposals on the floor of each chamber.

Question 16

What is the role of the House Speaker/Minority Leader? What example is there of this? - Functions of Congress

Answer 16

The House Speaker/Minority Leader may liaise with the White House in order to reach legislative breakthroughs and persuade congressional caucuses to support legislation in order to pass it. In 2010, House Speaker Nancy Pelosi achieved key concessions from the President and from conservative Democrats to pass healthcare reforms.

Question 17

What reasons are there for the close links between elected members and their constituents in the US? - Functions of Congress

Answer 17

Constitutions say that reps must be residents of state they represent, some states enforce a rule that reps must live in their congressional district, frequent elections mean that reps are continuously accountable to their constituents, many reps have close emotional ties to their constituents, some reps must win congressional primaries to be nominated for House elections.

Question 18

What instance was there of a long-serving Representative being ousted at a congressional primary recently? - Functions of Congress

Answer 18

In 2019, Joseph Crowley was ousted from his position after a congressional primary after 20 years of service, with Alexandra Ocasio-Cortez replacing him as a result.

Question 19

How do elected individuals engage with their constituents? - Functions of Congress

Answer 19

Elected individuals may maintain contact with constituents through phone and email/maintaining constituency offices/visting their constituencies/holding surgeries and meetings/making state visits/etc.

Question 20

How does the 2017 Tax Cuts and Jobs Act represent elected individuals acting in favour of their constituents? - Functions of Congress

Answer 20

In 2017, 12 Republican House members voted against the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act due to the fact that the areas they represent would have seen a tax increase through the legislation. Mainly represented areas in New York, New Jersey and California.

Question 21

How do pressure groups operate to influence members? - Functions of Congress

Answer 21

Pressure groups have been known to make contact with members and staff, provide evidence to committees, organise rallies, campaign and engage in fundraising. They raise money for politicians that support their causes and raise money against those who challenge their views.

Question 22

What example is there of pressure groups attempting to influence congressional candidates in 2020? - Functions of Congress

Answer 22

In 2020, the financial sector donated around $75m to candidates from both parties in an attempt to influence their decision making when casting votes.

Question 23

What are lobbyists? What methods do they employ in an attempt to influence representatives in Congress? - Functions of Congress

Answer 23

Lobbyists are individuals employed on behalf of interest groups in an attempt to persuade representatives to support certain policies/stances. They act by providing information to representatives to influence voting, may draft model legislation to mirror desired objectives in actual legislation, could provide distorted data, coordinate lobbying operations in Washington.

Question 24

What % of bills introduced in a Congress are passed into law? How many bills are typically introduced in a single Congress? - Functions of Congress

Answer 24

Currently only 2-4% of bills are passed into law, with around 10,000-14,000 bills introduced in each single Congress.

Question 25

What are the legislative functions of Congress? - Functions of Congress

Answer 25

Congress can create, scrutinise, amend, delay and pass legislation.

Question 26

What are the procedures for introducing bills in the House/Senate respectively? What is the same across both Houses? - Functions of Congress

Answer 26

In the House, a copy of the bill is placed in the clerk’s desk. In the Senate, the bill’s title is read out to the floor of the Senate. Across both Houses, there is no debate or vote for introducing a bill: this is a formality.

Question 27

What percentage of Bills were passed in the 2011-12 Congress? How many laws did this account for? - Functions of Congress

Answer 27

In the 2011-12 Congress, only 1% of bills were passed, with this amounting to 205 laws.

Question 28

What happens at the Committee stage of a bill? Who sits on committees and what powers do they have? - Functions of Congress

Answer 28

At the Committee stage of a bill, a hearing takes place with those sponsoring a bill provided with an opportunity to make a case for its passage. Committees are made up of policy experts within a specific area, with these bodies having the power to add, remove or amend aspects of a bill.

Question 29

What is a ‘mark-up’ session? What is ‘reporting out’? - Functions of Congress

Answer 29

A ‘mark-up session’ is where any changes and amendments to a bill are ratified by a bill’s committee. ‘Reporting out’ involves a committee sending a bill to its next stage.

Question 30

What is the Senate’s ‘unanimous consent agreement’? - Functions of Congress

Answer 30

The ‘unanimous consent agreement’ is a timetabling procedure adopted in the Senate which waives normal procedures and allows the order in which bills are debated to be decided.

Question 31

What is the House’s ‘House Rules Committee’? What is its role? - Functions of Congress

Answer 31

The House Rules Committee is a body which decides which bills will progress to the chamber for debate and which bills will be held back. The HRC also determines the rules surrounding amendments to bills.

Question 32

What is a discharge petition in the House and when may it be used? What example is there of this? - Functions of Congress

Answer 32

A discharge petition is a petition that must be signed by an absolute majority of representatives in order to be passed, with this ‘discharging’ a bill from suspension by the Rules Committee and bringing it to the floor of the House for debate. This was used in 2002 over the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act.

Question 33

What are the 3 rules that may be adopted by the House Rules Committee over amendments to bills? - Functions of Congress

Answer 33

Open rules - allowing unlimited amendments to any aspect of the bill
Modified rules - allowing a limit on the number of amendments, on who may propose them and on what may be amended
Closed rules - amendments forbidden

Question 34

What is significant about the political makeup of the House Rules Committee? What was the political split of this body in 2019? - Functions of Congress

Answer 34

The House Rules Committee is more heavily weighted in favour of the party with a House majority than any other committee. In 2019, the committee had 9 Democrat members and 4 Republican members.

Question 35

What % of 2017-19 bills were debated under closed rules? What is the significance of this? - Functions of Congress

Answer 35

From 2017-19, 56% of bills were debated under closed rules. This demonstrates the House Rules Committee taking more of a controlling stance on legislation, allowing minimal opportunity for amendments following the committee stage.

Question 36

What majority is required to pass bills in the US? What happens if the vote is tied in the Senate? - Functions of Congress

Answer 36

In the US, a simple majority is required to pass bills. If the Senate’s vote is tied, then the VP has the casting vote.

Question 37

What is a filibuster? What instances of these have there been? - Functions of Congress

Answer 37

A filibuster is a prolonged speech taking place IN THE SENATE during a legislative debate which may frustrate or prevent the passage of a bill by making it run out of allotted time. In 2010, Bernie Sanders conducted a filibuster in opposition to Obama’s attempted tax deal with Republicans, while Strom Thurmond conducted one to prevent the passage of civil rights legislation in 1957.

Question 38

What can end a filibuster? What are the requirements for these to be passed? - Functions of Congress

Answer 38

A filibuster may be ended by a cloture motion, with a petition requiring 16 signatures and then to be voted in favour of by 3/5 of the Senate.

Question 39

How many cloture motions were initiated in the 2019-20 Congress? How many were successful? - Functions of Congress

Answer 39

328 cloture motions were initiated in the 2019-20 Congress, with 270 being successful.

Question 40

What is the Senate’s ‘nuclear option’ for filibusters? When is this used? - Functions of Congress

Answer 40

The ‘nuclear option’ in the senate is a procedure where only a simple majority is needed to curtail filibusters on Executive and Judiciary nominations.

Question 41

What is a conference committee? When are they required? - Functions of Congress

Answer 41

A conference committee is a body formed of delegates from both chambers of Congress to reconcile differences in legislation when a bill is passed in different forms between chambers.

Question 42

Why are conference committees becoming increasingly less common? How many were called from 2015-17? - Functions of Congress

Answer 42

Conference committees are becoming increasingly less common as members in one chamber are now encouraged to accept the legislation proposed by the other. This saw only 7 conference committees called from 2015-17.

Question 43

When may a President agree to sign a bill into law? How is this normally conducted? What example is there of this? - Functions of Congress

Answer 43

A President will sign a bill into law when they fully agree with a proposal and wish to gain some recognition for their role in this. This usually revolves around a bill signing ceremony, which members associated with the bill may attend. This occurred in 2010, when Obama signed into law the Affordable Care Act.

Question 44

When was a conference committee last used on major legislation? - Functions of Congress

Answer 44

In 2017, a conference committee was required on the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act to resolve differences between the House and Senate.

Question 45

Why may a president decide to ‘leave a bill on their desk’? - Functions of Congress

Answer 45

A President may decide to leave a bill on their desk when they have no position on a bill or when they believe that any veto they exercise may be overridden by Congress. This sees a bill become law after 10 working days, yet the President largely washes their hands of this.

Question 46

When will a President decide to use a regular veto? What procedure do they adopt to do this? - Functions of Congress

Answer 46

A President will use a regular veto on a bill that they strongly oppose and wish to be heavily amended or wish to prevent its passage entirely. The President will tend to send the bill back to its house of origin with a list of objections within 10 working days of it being approved by both houses of Congress.

Question 47

What responses does Congress have when a bill is vetoed? - Functions of Congress

Answer 47

Congress can override a presidential veto with a 2/3 majority in both houses. Alternatively, they can amend a bill to suit the demands of a President or the bill may die entirely.

Question 48

What is a pocket veto? What instance has there previously been of this mechanism’s use? - Functions of Congress

Answer 48

A pocket veto is where a President refuses to sign a bill into law within 10 working days of the end of a Congressional session, meaning that it does not automatically become law if not signed by the President. Clinton used this in 2000 to veto the Consumer Bankruptcy Overhaul Bill.

Question 49

How many bills have been subject to a regular veto since 1789? How many vetoes have been overridden? - Functions of Congress

Answer 49

More than 1500 regular vetoes have been used since 1789, with 112 of those overridden.

Question 50

How did party control impact the relationship between Congress and the Presidency from 2001-2006 and from 2007-2008 respectively? - Functions of Congress

Answer 50

2001-6: oversight considerably fell under united government by Bush as the Republicans controlled both houses. Only 37 oversight hearings were held from 2003-4.
2007-8: the Democrats regained control of Congress, leading to a major increase in oversight (especially over the Iraq War).

Question 51

How has bipartisanship been achieved in the era of party polarisation (3)? What does this suggest about the relationship between Congress and the Presidency? - Functions of Congress

Answer 51

The 2001 Patriot Act, 2012 Jobs Act and the 2020 CARES Act were both signed with considerable bipartisan support, indicating that, when required, Congress and the Presidency can work effectively to secure the signing of legislation.

Question 52

When have national events been significant in improving the relationship between the Presidency and Congress? - Functions of Congress

Answer 52

The 2020 Coronavirus Pandemic and the 9/11 response both saw significant crises which prompted a response that was supported by both major parties.
9/11: saw the 2001 Patriot Act passed
COVID: CARES Act passed

Question 53

How did Trump’s approval ratings impact the relationship between the Presidency and Congress? - Functions of Congress

Answer 53

Trump’s approval ratings never exceeded 49%, meaning that Congress felt able to consistently defy his wishes on tax reform, immigration and healthcare policy.

Question 54

How did Bush’s approval ratings impact the relationship between the Presidency and Congress? (POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE) - Functions of Congress

Answer 54

Positive: Bush’s approval ratings were at record highs after 9/11, leading to his Patriot Act being passed with little obstruction.
Negative: Congress more inclined to oppose a President when approval ratings are low. Rejected social security reform when 65% of people opposed this.

Question 55

How does the policy area being overseen by the President impact the relationship between the Presidency and Congress? (Explain with examples) - Functions of Congress

Answer 55

Foreign policy: sees very limited obstruction by Congress as the Presidency controls this largely. Obama and Trump able to sign and withdraw from Iran Nuclear Deal with little congressional scrutiny.
Domestic: Congress can obstruct legislation easily such as on gun control, immigration and healthcare.

Question 56

How are Standing Committees a check on the President by Congress? - Functions of Congress

Answer 56

Standing committees (permanent, policy specialist bodies) are able to conduct hearings on a piece of legislation by calling witnesses and can have votes on whether a hearing should progress to the chamber floor.

Question 57

Give 2 examples of standing committees conducting investigations - Functions of Congress

Answer 57

The House Armed Services Committee is investigating US strategy in Iraq and Syria. The Senate Foreign Affairs Committee is investigating US-China Relations.

Question 58

What example is there of the Senate Judiciary Committee unanimously approving a nomination? What example is there of a tight approval? - Functions of Congress

Answer 58

Ruth Bader Ginsburg was approved by an 18-0 vote in favour of her nomination by the Senate Judiciary Committee. Brett Kavanaugh faced an 11-10 vote in favour of his nomination.

Question 59

How did the Senate act as a check on Nixon prior to him leaving office? What was Nixon’s response to this? - Functions of Congress

Answer 59

Nixon was virtually guaranteed to be impeached by the Senate for his role in the Watergate Scandal, with him eventually resigning to avoid impeachment.

Question 60

What arguments are there that Congress has been effective at checking the power of the President? - Functions of Congress

Answer 60

Congress has impeached 3 Presidents + Nixon’s resignation, Presidents with low approval ratings and narrow popular vote margins at elections will face increased scrutiny and ensure that poorly thought out proposals are subjected to oversight.

Question 61

What examples are there of Congress being ineffective at checking the power of the Executive? - Functions of Congress

Answer 61

Congress could not impeach Nixon as he had left office (later to be pardoned), the Senate has very few powers to check Executive Agreements, President can bypass Congress with Executive Orders, united government acquits presidents of impeachments (Trump x2), presidents with united government and large mandates have little Congressional opposition.

Question 62

How many presidential vetoes have been used since 1992? How many of these have been overridden? - Functions of Congress

Answer 62

70 presidential vetoes have been used since 1992, with 8 overridden.

Question 63

What was Bush’s approval rating at election? What was his approval rating in his 2nd term? What was his approval rating after 9/11? - Features of the Constitution

Answer 63

Election - 62%
2nd Term - 37%
9/11 - 90%

Question 64

What instances are there of Presidents having failed to legislate with united government? Provide reasoning - Features of the Constitution

Answer 64

Clinton - failed to reform healthcare due to his inability to convince conservative Democrats of his proposals.
Trump - failed to repeal Obamacare due to his failure to provide an alternative for moderate Republicans.