Intelligence

Question 1

Who is Samuel George Morton?
What year was he in?
How did he measure intelligence?
Why did he measure intelligence?
What were his conclusions?

Answer 1

• Samuel George Morton
o 1839-1850
o Used skull capacity as a measure of mental worth (Craniology)
 Looked at skulls he collected from North and South America
o Primary agenda was to validate known groups differences (and therefore served continuance of slavery)
 That white males are the smartest of all groups
o Originally used mustard seeds to estimate volume of skull (filled up upside down skull to measure mustard seeds)- later went to 1/8 inch diameter lead shot (ball bearings)
 Found that mustard seeds were not reliable as they could be squished
o He published all of his data (did not hide his tracks)
o Concluded that volume of Caucasian skull (87 inches cubed) was higher than that of Ethiopian (78 inches cubed)– thought that he had measured an innate difference in intelligence
 This confirmed pre-existing biases that white men were superior

Question 2

What were problems with Samuel George Morton’s data?

Answer 2

 Made no attempt to externally validate the measure
 Failed to take into consideration stature and gender of the individuals
• Size of brains are related to size of bodies
 Selective in way he would include or exclude data
• If he saw that there was large brain from non-white group, he would find a reason to exclude it from dataset
 Prior prejudice
• Measure with mustard seed was imprecise (high measurement error)
• On re-measurement with lead shot- discrepancy favoured a priori expectations
o Underestimation of skulls for blacks by 5.4 cubic inches
o Underestimation of Indian skulls by 2.2 cubic inches
o underestimation of white skulls by 1.8 cubic inches

Question 3

Who was Paul Broca inspired by and why did he measure intelligence the way he did?

Answer 3

• Paul Broca
o Followed Morton’s work but added much more precision
o Took various skull measures
 Cranial index: ratio of length to width
 Brain weight (where possible)
o Support Morton’s group findings with copious numbers
o However, when it was suggested to him that brain size bore no relation to degree of intelligence, he said that the study of the brains of human races would lose most of its interest and utility if variation in size counted for nothing
 Argued that anthropologists spent so much time measuring skulls because their results could be used to delineate human groups and assess their relative worth

Question 4

Who was Le Bon and what did he do?

Answer 4

• Le Bon used Broca’s data to support pre-existing prejudice in group differences in 1879
o Used small skull of women to prove women’s inferiority

Question 5

Who was Galton and how did he test intelligence? What were the shortcomings of this method? What did he contribute to the scientific community?

Answer 5

• Galton, late 1800s
o Hereditary genius (1869)
o Physical measurement of intelligence (from 1880s onwards)
o Tests of:
 Sensory acuity
 Head size, strength
 Speed of reactions
o Tests showed little relationship to any external criteria associated with intelligence (how successful people were at work…), or with each other
o Galton’s legacy
 Scientific/empirical approach to human intelligence
 Statistical methods (invented normal curve, correlation) with Pearson
 Observed normal curve
 Study of nature versus nurture (twin studies and heritability)

Question 6

Why did Binet (1905) disagree with Broca’s method?

Answer 6

• Binet-1905
o Binet had problems with Broca’s method
 Couldn’t demonstrate external validity: needed a more objective method

Question 7

How did Binet view intelligence?

Answer 7

o Binet considered intelligence to consist of different abilities and to be dependent on a variety of higher psychological faculties, such as attention, memory, imagination, common sense, judgement and abstraction

Question 8

What is the objective of the Binet-Simon scale, why was it developed and how did it work?

Answer 8

o Commissioned by the French government that would identify students that were not succeeding and that should be offered special education
o Binet-Simon scale
 Set out to develop a set of measures that form the basis of intelligence test as we know them today
 Age level assigned at each task
 Mental age assigned to the person
o Objective-
 Identify children whose lack of success in normal classrooms suggested the need for some form of special education
o Did not test for knowledge acquired in classroom

Question 9

What is task age in the Binet-Simon scale?

Answer 9

• The youngest age at which a child of normal intelligence should be able to complete the task

Question 10

What is mental age and what are problems with using it as a standard for intelligence?

Answer 10

 Mental age assigned to the person
• Age level at which normal children in the standardisation sample passed the task
• Problem with mental age
o Hard to make comparisons across people of different ages

Question 11

Who was the Binet-Simon scale intended for?

Answer 11

o Binet was very explicit in stating that the scores derived from his tests were rough, that they were not intended for use in ranking normal children, and above all else, they were indicators of current functioning and did not speak to the past or future capabilities of the child

Question 12

Describe how the US army used tests of intelligence and why

Answer 12

• Army Alpha and Army Beta
o Group-administered tests of intelligence
 Literate people first administered alpha test
 Illiterate, or people who failed the alpha were to get the Beta non-verbal test
 Individuals who failed the beta test were to be individually tested
o Wanted to know who would be in the front lines and who would be officers

Question 13

What was the Stanford-Binet test used for?

Answer 13

• Stanford-Binet
o Used initially to detect feeble minded school children
o Subsequently used in adult populations
 Stop not smart people from entering the country-test immigrants arriving in New York and only intelligent people were allowed to immigrate
 Stop people who were not smart from reproducing (eugenics movement)

Question 14

Describe Stanford-Binet test classifications for adults

Answer 14

o	Classification for adults:
	Idiots- mental age <2
	Imbecile- mental age (3-7)
	Feeble-minded: mental age (8-12)
	Moron: Highest functioning mentally retarded

Question 15

What did Lewis Terman (1916) do?

Answer 15

 Revised and published Binet’s test as the Stanford-Binet
 Developed and publicised intelligence testing as measurement
-Used ratio-IQ

Question 16

Who first proposed and adapted Ratio IQ?

Answer 16

• First proposed by William Stern (1912), adopted by Terman

Question 17

What was the mental age of white americans?

Answer 17

16 years old

Question 18

What is ratio-IQ?

Answer 18

 ratio IQ= Mental Age/Chronical Age * 100

Question 19

What are problems with ratio IQ and what was a temporary solution for this?

Answer 19

• Problem with ratio IQ-
o Only works if mental age increases proportionally with chronological age. Difficulty to say anything substantiative about adults
 As get older, intellectual ability does not increase with chronological age
o Hence, decided that cut- off mental age was 16, but still not good solution

Question 20

Who developed deviation IQ?

Answer 20

David Wechsler

Question 21

What is deviation IQ?

Answer 21

 How much you deviate from the mean performance of a comparison group
 Related to the idea of norm-referenced testing used throughout psychology
 Judge a person’s test score in terms of how it compares to an appropriate standardization sample

Question 22

What is the advantage of deviation IQ?

Answer 22

• IQ scores means the same thing regardless of the comparison group

Question 23

What is the mean and standard deviation of deviation IQ?

Answer 23

o IQ= 100 means you are average, SD=15

Question 24

Why is the mean for deviation IQ 100?

Answer 24

o 100 was set as the average to be consistent with the ratio IQ which was familiar to psychologists

Question 25

What is the problem with deviation IQ?

Answer 25

o Problem with IQ score

 Gives appearance of stability in IQ-appears that intelligence is stable over the years as you grow

Question 26

What is the problem with using raw score, frequency or percentile rank as measures of intelligence ?

Answer 26

• A score may have different percentile rankings for each group, and thus different psychological interpretations
o Score that is used has to be referenced to the age group (normal testing)

Question 27

What is standard deviation?

Answer 27

 Standard deviation- how much on average do people deviate from the mean

Question 28

What are the advantages of Z scores?

Answer 28

 Advantage of Z scores
• Standardized deviation
• Means the same thing regardless of comparison group

Question 29

What is a Z score?

Answer 29

o Z score= (score-mean)/ Standard deviation

Question 30

How do you convert Z score in deviation IQ score?

Answer 30

o Convert Z score in deviation IQ score
 deviation IQ=100+ (Z score * 15)
• Mean=100
• SD=15

Question 31

What is an assumption made when using Z score?

Answer 31

• However, appropriateness of the linear transformation to z scores and the subsequent interpretations are premised on the assumption that the original raw scores fall along an equal interval scale

Question 32

What is a negative correlation and how is it represented numerically?

Answer 32

• Negative correlation: high values of one variable are associated with low values of another
o -1 correlation is perfect negative correlation

Question 33

What is a positive correlation and how is it represented numerically?

Answer 33

• Positive correlation: high values of one variable are associated with high values of another
o +1 is the perfect positive correlation

Question 34

What is the psychometric approach to intelligence based on?

Answer 34

• The psychometric approach to intelligence is based on an analysis of the correlations between test scores

Question 35

How is intelligence defined according to the psychometric approach?

Answer 35

• Intelligence is defined by its structure

o Statistical analysis of psychological data as basis for theory development

Question 36

Describe how the psychometric approach is performed

Answer 36

• Primarily empirical approach

o Through factor analysis (analysis of covariation)

Question 37

What is factor analysis?

Answer 37

 Factor analysis: analysis of how many minimum factors explain the observed pattern of correlations
• Factor analysis looks for similarities and differences in correlations between tests

Question 38

What is Spearman’s law of positive manifold?

Answer 38

• Spearman’s law of positive manifold- All tasks that tend to require intellectual processing are positively correlated

Question 39

What is Spearman’s indifference of the indicator?

Answer 39

• Spearman’s indifference of the indicator-No matter which test was used, a positive correlation is found

Question 40

Describe Spearman’s observation that led him to develop the two factor theory

Answer 40

• Observation

o All tests of intelligence correlate positively with all others- positive manifold

Question 41

What is Spearman’s two factor theory?

Answer 41

• Proposition
o Some general entity exists that explains this positive manifold
 Defined it as mental energy
o But correlations among tests are far from perfect, so there are other specific factors determining performance on each test
• Proposed each test is made up of two factors
o Specific factors ‘s’ (different for each test)
o General factor ‘g’ which is determined innately
 ‘g’ is what is common to a group of tests, but is not the same for all groups of test
 Empirically, ‘g’ is the first principle component in a factor analysis of intelligence test scores
actor ‘g’ underlies all the tests, but is different between different groups of tests
 Relative importance of the ‘g’ factor is important between different groups of tests
• Theory stated that there is a general factor that is a partial influence on all aspects of intelligence and that there is an indeterminate number of specific abilities that operate under very narrow circumstances

Question 42

How can g be tilted?

Answer 42

• ‘g’ can be tilted toward one construct or another by tests chosen -> g is determined by tests used as representations of intelligence

Question 43

According to Spearman, what is performance on a test determined by?

Answer 43

• Performance on a test is defined by the sum of General factor, Specific factor and Error
o Error is unexplainable variation

Question 44

What are holes/ arguments in Spearman’s two factor theory?

Answer 44

• Spearman’s original theory attempted to explain individual differences in intelligence without appealing to the existence of group factors, which are broad abilities that influence sets of related but clearly distinct (that is, narrow) cognitive abilities.
o Spearman’s original theory predicts that the correlations among these narrow abilities are entirely explained by the general factor
• However, it became clear that the general factor could not entirely explain the residual correlations between many clearly different abilities: some tests were highly correlated with others but lowly correlated with a different brick of tests- suggests different broad factors, not just one general factor
o Spearman eventually modified his theory to accommodate broad factors of intelligence but still argued strongly that ‘g’ was probably the most important aspect of intelligence
• Thomson against ‘g’- positive manifold arises, not because all tests measure a single psychological or neurobiological process, but because each test taps a subset of very large number of elementary processes or operations, and there will almost necessarily be some overlap between the processes engaged by one test and those engaged by another

Question 45

Describe Thurstone’s definition of intelligence

Answer 45

• Intelligence is a series of processes that are internally consistent but are not related to each other

Question 46

What is Thurstone’s view on the g factor

Answer 46

• First thought was that there was no g factor in intelligence, but his revised theory admitted that an underlying g factor was a possibility after observing correlations between different subsets of tests

Question 47

Describe Thurstone’s primary mental abilities

Answer 47

•	There are multiple abilities that comprise intelligence- divided intelligence into 7 primary mental abilities:
o	Verbal meaning
o	Word fluency
o	Reasoning
o	Number
o	Spatial relations
o	Associate memory
o	Perceptual speed

Question 48

What is an argument against Thurstone’s primary mental abilities?

Answer 48

• However, it was found that these primary mental abilities could be split into ever narrower abilities- were not primary

Question 49

What is Cattell’s theory of intelligence?

Answer 49

the Gf-Gc theory

Question 50

What is fluid intelligence?

Answer 50

o The ability to grasp relations between things
o Nonverbal abilities, inductive and deductive reasoning
o Culture-free in theory (but not in practice- could be due to assessment type)
o Ability to grasp novel things
o Detect patterns
o Work with abstract problems

Question 51

What is crystallized intelligence?

Answer 51

o Acquired knowledge and skills
o Acculturated knowledge requires exposure to culture, formal/informal education
o Usually verbal
o Acquiring crystallized intelligence may require some investment of fluid intelligence (Cattell’s investment hypothesis)

Question 52

What are subdivisions of fluid intelligence?

Answer 52

o	This includes subdivisions such as 
	Induction
	Sequential reasoning 
	Quantitative reasoning
	Temporal tracking
	Figural reasoning

Question 53

What are subdivisions of crystallised intelligence?

Answer 53

o	This includes subdivisions such as 
	Verbal comprehension
	Cognition of semantic relations
	General information 
	Reading comprehension 
	Spelling ability
	Verbal closure
	Phonetic coding
	Foreign language aptitude

Question 54

Do crystallised and fluid intelligence interact?

Answer 54

• Performance on a single task can (and is likely to) require fluid and crystallised intelligence

Question 55

Are crystallised and fluid intelligence correlated to each other?

Answer 55

• Fluid intelligence and crystallised intelligence are correlated with each other to varying extents
o However, there is no perfect correlation: general fluid intelligence increases until the age of 25 then declines, but crystallised intelligence increases then plateaus in late adulthood
o They show different developmental trends

Question 56

Describe Cattell’s hierarchical model of intelligence

Answer 56

• Fluid intelligence and crystallised intelligence subdivisions are first order abilities, which are measured using multiple tasks and tests
o The tests are the indicators, fluid and crystallised intelligence subdivisions are first order factors and fluid/crystallised intelligence are second order factors
o This is the hierarchical model of intelligence

Question 57

Describe Horn’s 3 subdivisions of different intelligence types

Answer 57

• Expertise abilities
• Sensory/perceptual abilities
• Vulnerable abilities

Question 58

Describe the intelligence types in Horn’s expertise abilities

Answer 58

• Expertise abilities
o Tertiary storage and retrieval (TSR)
 Retention of material learned in the distant past
o Quantitative ability (Gq)
 Ability to process numerical or quantitative information
o Reading/writing ability (Grw)
 Ability to comprehend and reproduce writing
o Crystallised intelligence (Gc)
 Broad ability that reflects the influences of formal learning and occulturation

Question 59

Describe the intelligence types in Horn’s sensory/perceptual abilities

Answer 59

• Sensory/perceptual abilities
o Broad auditory function (Ga)
 Perception or discrimination of auditory patterns of sounds
o Correct decision speed (CDS)
 Reaction time to tasks of trivial difficulty
o Broad visualisation (Gv)
 Processing visual or spatial forms/figures

Question 60

Describe the intelligence types in Horn’s vulnerable abilities

Answer 60

• Vulnerable abilities
o Short-term acquisition and retrieval (SAR)
 Retention of material over a short period of time
o Processing speed (Gs)
 Rapid cognitive processing of information
o Fluid intelligence (Gf)
 Reasoning ability (minimal dependence on learning and acculturation)

Question 61

What is the Cattell-Horn-Carroll three stratum model?

Answer 61

• Continued the focus on hierarchy of ability factors
• Main point of contention is where to stop abstraction
o 1st order- individual subdivisions (narrow abilities- 70 currently identified)
o 2nd order- G subdivision factors
o 3rd order- general factor g
• Cattell-Horn-Carroll theory is widely accepted and is an integration of the Horn-Catell Theory of Fluid and Crystallised Intelligence, and Carroll’s Three-Stratum Theory of Intelligence.
• Has over 70 narrow abilities and 16 broad abilities
o Each grouping has at least one level ability and one speed factor associated with it

Question 62

What are the broad abilities of the Cattell-Horn-Carroll theory?

Answer 62

o	Knowledge 
o	Reasoning
o	Visuo-spatial skills
o	Memory
o	Speed
o	Sensory modalities

Question 63

What is inside Cattell-Horn-Carroll’s broad knowledge ability?

Answer 63

o	Knowledge 
	Crystallised intelligence (Gc)
	Domain specific knowledge (Gkn)
	Quantitative knowledge (Gq)
	Reading and writing abilities (Grw)

Question 64

What is inside Cattell-Horn-Carroll’s broad reasoning ability?

Answer 64

o Reasoning

 Fluid intelligence (Gf)

Question 65

What is inside Cattell-Horn-Carroll’s broad visuo-spatial ability?

Answer 65

o Visuo-spatial skills

 Visuo-spatial abilities (Gv)

Question 66

What is inside Cattell-Horn-Carroll’s broad memory ability?

Answer 66

o	Memory
	General memory and learning (Gy)
	Retrieval fluency (Gr)
	Short-term acquisition and retrieval (SAR)
	Tertiary storage and retrieval (TSR)
	Short-term memory (Gsm)
	Long-term storage and retrieval (Glr)

Question 67

What is inside Cattell-Horn-Carroll’s broad speed ability?

Answer 67

o Speed
 Processing speed (Gs)
 Decision speed (Gt)
 Psycho-motor speed (Gps)

Question 68

What is inside Cattell-Horn-Carroll’s broad sensory modality ability?

Answer 68

o	Sensory modalities
	Auditory abilities (Ga)
	Olfactory abilities (Go)
	Tactile abilities (Gh)
	Kinaesthetic abilities (Gk)

Question 69

Describe what ultimately decides what type of intelligence tests correlate with

Answer 69

Tests-
• Context of assessment has big impact in terms of what these sorts of tasks will ultimately correlate with
• The processes that are underlying the same tasks put into different situations based on people’s experiences are likely to be different

Question 70

Describe who Gardner studied for his multiple intelligences theory

Answer 70

• Interested in setting a criteria that a psychological attribute should have to be considered intelligence. Studied these groups of people:
o People experiencing potential isolation by brain damage
o Savants, prodigies, other exceptional people performed well in some areas but not others
o People with a distinctive developmental history (geniuses)
 Differentiated between evolutionary history and evolutionary plausibility
 Support from experimental psychological tasks
 Support from psychometric findings

Question 71

Describe Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences (iincluding subsequent updates)

Answer 71

o 1983 theory
 Linguistic: language skills
 Logico-mathematic: numerical skills
 Spatial: understanding relationships in space
 Musical: skills such as playing a musical instrument
 Bodily kinaesthetic: using the body
 Inter-personal: understanding and relating to others
 Intra-personal: understanding oneself
o 1996 additions
 Naturalist: ability to interact with nature
 Existentialist: spiritual intelligence, or the ability to understand one’s place within the grand scheme of things

Question 72

What did Sternberg define as intelligence?

Answer 72

• Intelligence- defined in terms of a person’s ability to adapt to the environment and learn from experience

Question 73

What is Sternberg’s successful intelligence theory?

Answer 73

o Analytical intelligence
o Creative intelligence
o Practical intelligence

Question 74

What is Sternberg’s analytical intelligence?

Answer 74

 Ability to

• Think critically, analyse and evaluate ideas, solve problems, make decisions

Question 75

When is Sternberg’s analytical intelligence invoked?

Answer 75

 Invoked when components are applied to fairly familiar kinds of problems abstracted from everyday life

Question 76

What does Sternberg’s analytical intelligence relate to?

Answer 76

 Relates to
• Componential sub-theory
• Internal world
• Declarative knowledge

Question 77

What is Sternberg’s analytical intelligence studied by?

Answer 77

 Studied by:

• Intelligence is studied with respect to the internal world of the individual

Question 78

Describe Sternberg’s analytical intelligence componential sub theory (components)

Answer 78

• Componential sub-theory
o Thinking components or processes
 Applied to relatively familiar tasks and situations somewhat abstracted from everyday experience
o Components classified by function and level of generality
 Metacomponents
• Planning what to do, monitoring things as they are being done, evaluation of performance
 Knowledge-acquisition components
• Selective encoding, combination, comparison, deciding what information is relevant to the context of one’s learning
 Performance components
• Perceiving, generating, comparing
• Execute the instructions of the metacomponents

Question 79

What is Sternberg’s creative intelligence?

Answer 79

 Creativity is the ability to produce work that is both novel and appropriate

Question 80

When is Sternberg’s creative intelligence invoked?

Answer 80

 Invoked when the components are applied to relatively novel kinds of tasks or situations

Question 81

What can Sternberg’s creative intelligence do?

Answer 81

 Ability to

• Go beyond what is given to generate novel and interesting ideas

Question 82

What does Sternberg’s creative intelligence relate to?

Answer 82

• Experiential sub-theory

* Experience

Question 83

What is Sternberg’s creative intelligence studied by?

Answer 83

 Studied by:

• Intelligence is studied with respect to experience

Question 84

What is Sternberg’s cireative intelligence experiental sub-theory (definition and components)

Answer 84

• Experiential sub-theory
o It postulates that intelligence is
 Best measured by those processes that involve tasks and situations that are relatively novel or are in the process of becoming automatized
o Links to creative intelligence
o Components-
 Dealing with novelty
 Automatization of information processing
• To be creative, you have to have knowledge
• Overtime, processing of novelty becomes automatic

Question 85

What are different types of creativity?

Answer 85

	Types of creativity:
•	Big creativity (C )
o	Eminent creativity such as paintings…
•	Little creativity (C )
o	Everyday creativity
•	Mini creativity (C )
o	The creative processes involved in the construction of personal knowledge and understanding

Question 86

Sternberg 1985- what are implicit definitions of creativity based on a survey conducted by Sternberg?

Answer 86

 Implicit definitions of creativity based on a survey (Sternberg 1985)
• Lack of conventionality: making up rules along the way
• Integration and intellectuality: integrate old information with new information
• Aesthetic taste and imagination: appreciation of the arts
• Decisional skill and flexibility: follow gut feelings that tend to work, has the ability to change directions and use another procedure
• Perspicacity: questions social norms
• Drive for accomplishment and recognition

Question 87

What is Sternberg’s practical intelligence able to do?

Answer 87

 Ability to
• Make solutions effective, solve real-world problems, implement ideas
• Invoked when the components are applied to experience to adapt to, shape, and select environments

Question 88

What does Sternberg’s practical intelligence relate to?

Answer 88

• Contextual sub-theory
• External world
• Procedural knowledge

Question 89

What is Sternberg’s practical intelligence studied by?

Answer 89

 Studied by:

• Intelligence is studied with respect to the external world of the individual

Question 90

What does research involving examining how participants solve analytical problems aim to do?

Answer 90

• Research involving examining how participants solve analytical problems aim to:
o Specify an information-processing model of task performance
o Propose a parameterization of this model, so that each information-processing component is assigned a mathematical parameter corresponding to its latency
o Construct cognitive tasks administered in such a way that it is possible through mathematical modelling to isolate the parameters of the mathematical model

Question 91

What knowledge can researching participants solving analytical problems lead to?

Answer 91

• Researching participants solving analytical problems can lead to knowledge about:
o Performance components used
o How long it takes to execute each component
o Susceptibility of each component to error
o Combining components into strategies
o Mental representations upon which components act

Question 92

What underlying information-processing components can inductive-reasoning performance be divided into?

Answer 92

 Inductive-reasoning performance can be divided into a set of such underlying information-processing components:
• Encoding- amount of time needed to register each stimulus
• Inference- amount of time needed to discern the basic relation between given stimuli
• Mapping-amount of time needed to transfer the relation from one set of stimuli to another
• Application- amount of time needed to apply the relation as inferred to a new set of stimuli
• Comparison- amount of time needed to compare the validity of the response options
• Justification- amount of time needed to justify one answer
• Preparation-response- amount of time needed to prepare for problem solution and to respond

Question 93

What is the basis of Sternberg’s successful intelligence theory and its core philosophy?

Answer 93

• Basis of theory
o Derived from an information-processing approach (cognitive psychology and specific task analyses)
o Studies the states and processes (components) that underlie intelligence thought
• Core philosophy
o The theory acknowledges the fact that the term intelligence has many meanings

Question 94

What is Sternberg’s successful intelligence?

Answer 94

• Successful intelligence is:
o The ability to achieve success in life, given one’s personal standards, within one’s sociocultural context. Requires:
 Identifying meaningful goals
• Choosing a worthwhile set of goals compatible with the skills and dispositions the individual has that are needed to achive those goals
 Coordinating those goals in a meaningful way so that they form a coherent story of what one is seeking in life
 Moving a substantial distance along the path toward realizing those goals
o In order to adapt to, shape, and select environments
o Via recognition of and capitalization on strengths and remediation of or compensation for weaknesses
o Through a balance of analytical, creative and practical abilities

Question 95

How has Sternberg’s successful intelligence theory been used?

Answer 95

• Sternberg’s triarchic theory has been used in education and the workplace

Question 96

How is practical intelligence measured and what are some issues with this method/

Answer 96

• Sternberg’s triarchic theory has been used in education and the workplace
o Practical intelligence is measured with tacit knowledge tests
 Tacit knowledge is knowledge that is not explicitly taught, but acquired with a low degree of social support. This knowledge is highly context-specific and is instrumental to attaining personal goals
o Some evidence that tacit knowledge leads to managerial success and increased salary
 But there is issue on how tacit knowledge tests are scored- the best answers are agreed upon by experts, so essentially defining the truth and what is ‘right’ based on what everyone else thinks and beliefs
o Some people would argue that practical intelligence is crystallised intelligence and is nothing new
 Way that pattern of correlations interpreted leads to many different interpretations

Question 97

What is a criticism of Sternberg’s successful intelligence theory?

Answer 97

• Work criticized as it is not really testable as it covers everything- cannot differentiate it from anything else

Question 98

What is convergent production and what is it linked to?

Answer 98

• Convergent production-linked closely to intelligence

o Generating one correct answer from the available information

Question 99

What is Guilford’s divergent production and what is it linked to?

Answer 99

• Divergent production-linked closely to creativity

o Generating many possible answers from the same source

Question 100

How could divergent thinking be assessed?

Answer 100

o Assessing divergent thinking-
 How many uses of an object can you think of in 2 minutes
 Generate instances of common concepts
 Generate consequences of hypothetical events
 Generate ways in which common concepts are similar
 Generate multiple hypotheses given a set of premises/particular empirical result

Question 101

How could divergent thinking be scored?

Answer 101

o	Scoring divergent thinking
	Ideational fluency
•	Number of different uses
•	Count 
	Flexibility of thinking
•	Different categories of use
•	Reflects shift in thinking 
•	Count categories 
	Originality
•	Unusuality of ideas 
•	A count of the number of statistically infrequent ideas-compare responses to other people’s responses 
	Others depending on task appropriateness such as elaboration (degree of detail) and titles (Complexity of titles)

Question 102

What is an example of a divergent thinking test?

Answer 102

o Testing divergent thinking
 Torrance tests of creative thinking (TTCT)
• The most widely used tests of divergent thinking
• Intended for children
• Consist of both verbal (as before) and visual materials
 Divergent thinking is scored using normal divergent scoring patterns

Question 103

What are criticisms of divergent thinking?

Answer 103

o Criticisms of divergent thinking
 Originality is confounded with fluency
 Statistical rarity is ambiguous
• The faster you are, the more likely it is you will be original
 Uniqueness scoring penalises large samples
• If large group of people, harder it is to be original
 Tests are speeded, so also measure speed of production which confounds creativity influences
 Originality (how rare are the ideas) and fluency (how many ideas come up with) change with different instructions
 Divergent thinking may not relate to actual creative achievement
• Results are mixed in terms of whether divergent thinking is in fact correlated with creative achievement- differences due to how to measure creative achievement

Question 104

What is the relationship between intelligence and creativity?

Answer 104

• Relationship between intelligence and creativity
o Positive relationship between intelligence and creativity
o Threshold hypothesis: creative is unrelated to intelligence above a threshold of intelligence (about 120 IQ)
 Below 120 IQ- a positive correlation between IQ and creativity
 Above 120 IQ- no relationship between IQ and creativity

Question 105

Is expertise simply a function of g?

Answer 105

o Expertise is not simply a function of g

 Motivation is required

Question 106

What real world scenarios do not fit with the extended Gf-Gc theory?

Answer 106

• Paradoxes-
o Correlations between measures of intelligence and uni GPA rarely exceed 0.5 (that is, 75% unexplained variance)
o Research in gerontology show that adults perform poorly on several tests of intellectual abilities (memory and processing speed poorer), but function quite well in day-to-day activities
o Teachers identification of over-achievement and under-achievement
 People achieving less or better than what their intelligence capabilities are

Question 107

List theories which attempted to broaden intelligence theories to the real world

Answer 107

•	Attempts to broaden intelligence theories to the real world
o	Multiple intelligences (Gardener)
o	Creative and practical intelligence (Sternberg)
o	Emotional intelligence (Mayer and Salovey)
o	Wisdom (Baltes)
o	Models of developing expertise (Ericsson and Sternberg)

Question 108

Who developed the PPIK theory?

Answer 108

Ackerman

Question 109

Why did Ackerman develop the PPIK theory?

Answer 109

• Arguments that led to PPIK theory
o Under-appreciation of the importance of knowledge
o Inappropriate to use the methodology of child assessment for the assessment of adult intellect
 Binet- was doing activities to identify children at risk
 US development of tests were based on tests designed for children
 History shows that standardised IQ tests well-predict school performance of children
 No difficulty with this approach for testing children and adolescents
 Questioned whether upward extensions of the Binet-Simon scales are optimal for describing adult intellect, or the development of intellect in adults
o Intelligence tests we use do not assess knowledge very well
o Broader conceptualization of knowledge is needed
o Personality and interests contribute to knowledge acquisition

Question 110

What are justifications for taking knowledge seriously?

Answer 110

o Lay definitions (our intuitive theories of intelligence)

o Research that has been conducted

Question 111

Why do lay definitions suggest that knowledge should be considered in intelligence tests?

Answer 111

 Person’s intellect often defined as what things an individual can perform or achieve hence, performance on intelligence tests is just a small part
 In contrast, other competencies characterise broader aspects of adult intellect, such as being able to
• Figure out financial markets
• Build a house
• Buy a house
• Write an article or novel
• Perform scientific experiments
 These competencies might have only a small impact on scores on g or Gf tests
 Implicit theories about intelligence hence suggest a broader conceptualisation

Question 112

What do investigations into knowledge-based and skill-based differences in experts and novices tend to test? What is the problem with this method of conducting research? How has knowledge been represented?

Answer 112

• Whilst attempts are being made to broaden conceptualization of knowledge in theories of intelligence, until recently the role of non-cognitive variables on the development of intellectual skills has not been considered
o Undervalued the importance of knowledge as part of intellectual functioning
 Pattern acquisition through the lens of knowledge acquired

 Investigation into knowledge-based and skill-based differences in experts and novices tend to test:
• Declarative knowledge (most Gc tasks measure this) extremely well
• Procedural knowledge not so well
• Tacit knowledge and practical intelligence
 Expertise is predicated on long study and practice to develop rich, specific knowledge structures
• Through structured, formalised approach to learning

Question 113

What is the first step to intelligence?

Answer 113

Knowledge

Question 114

What are existing theory influences on the development of the PPIK?

Answer 114

• Influences on the development of PPIK: Gf/Gc
o Fluid intelligence (Gf)
o Crystallised intelligence (Gc)
 Traditional Gc measures
• Comprehension (Stanford Binet IV)
o Cattell’s investment theory- Gf and Gc
 Gc develops out of an investment of Gf
o Foundations in Cattell’s investment theory (fluid intelligence drives crystallised intelligence)
 Generally, through an investment of intelligence under the right conditions, expertise or knowledge as well as interest develops and feeds back on each other

Question 115

How is historical (past acquisition) Gc assessed?

Answer 115

o Ackerman: For adults, historical abilities are those that are assessed by most standardised group tests used in schools- those that focus on the kind of knowledge and skills developed prior to adulthood

Question 116

What is Gc influenced by?

Answer 116

• Gc is experiential
o Influenced by time invested in intellectual pursuits over development, and by historical and current interests and memory

Question 117

Should present (adult learning) crystallised intelligence be tested in the same way as historical crystallised intelligence (school learning) in adults

Answer 117

Present day Gc:
o Requires fundamentally different test content than what is afforded by traditional assessments
o Must be assessed by the kinds of knowledge and skills that are highly differentiated in the population
 Expertise is highly differentiated from one person to another
 Should have a different assessment of knowledge for each expertise that exists

Question 118

How is testing on either historical or present Gc limited for adults?

Answer 118

• Testing on either historical or present Gc is limited
o Historical Gc assessment- does not give adults any credit for anything they have learned outside the standard school curriculum
o Present Gc assessment- only tests a narrow band of knowledge and abilities

Question 119

What are the main 4 aspects of Ackerman’s PPIK theory?

Answer 119

o Intelligence-as-Process (gf)
o Personality
o Interests (and motivation)
o Intelligence-as-Knowledge

Question 120

What is intelligence as-process and what problems does it solve?

Answer 120

 Speed of processing, memory span, reasoning
 Classic Gf conceptualization has problems
• Some tasks are Gf for some people (children) and Gc for others (adults)
 Impossible to eliminate all content from ability tests
• Familiarity with testing environment/practice
 Intelligence-as-process is similar to Cattell’s fluid intelligence (Gf) but is limited to abilities that are based on substantially decontextualized processes

Question 121

What determines the relative devotion of cognitive efforts of individuals to domain-specific knowledge?

Answer 121

 Through interactions between intelligence-as-process and the development of key personality and interest variables, individuals devote greater or lesser amounts of cognitive effort to the acquisition of domain-specific knowledge

Question 122

How is personality related to intelligence-as-process?

Answer 122

 Weakly related to intelligence-as-process (Gf concept)
 Intelligence-as-knowledge is associated with two related personality traits
• Openness to experience (big five factor)-correlates 0.3 with intelligence
• Typical intellectual engagement (similar to need for cognition

Question 123

What is the openness to experience personality type requirements?

Answer 123

o Openness to experience scale-requirements for high openness
 Fantasy-have very active imagination
 Aesthetics- intrigued by patterns found in art or nature
 Feelings- have strong and important feelings
 Actions- Often try new things
 Ideas- enjoy solving puzzles and has many intellectual interests
 Values- openminded to new values
o High scorers are imaginative, creative, original, curious and flexible

Question 124

Describe a high need for cognition vs low need for cognition measurement in typical intellectual engagement types

Answer 124

• Typical intellectual engagement (similar to need for cognition)
o Need for cognition scale-high need for cognition
 Like to solve complex problems
 Need things explained only once
 Loves to think up new ways of doing things
 Loves to read challenging material
o need for cognition scale- low need for cognition
 Have difficulty understanding abstract ideas
 Try to avoid complex people
 Avoid philosophical discussions

Question 125

According to Ackerman, what is the impact of motivation on expertise?

Answer 125

 Ackerman’s view- if have interest in one area, then will be attracted to domains that require those skills and will develop expertise because motivated through those interests to acquire that expertise

Question 126

What are interests most closely linked to intelligence-as-process?

Answer 126

 Interests most closely linked to intelligence-as-process
• Investigative: task-oriented, prefer to think through rather than act out
• Realistic: activities that entail physical strength: motor coordination

Question 127

What are interests most closely linked to intelligence-as-knowledge?

Answer 127

 Interests most closely linked to intelligence-as-knowledge
• Artistic: prefer indirect relations with others: self-expression in artistic
• Realistic

Question 128

What are interests most closely linked to personality?

Answer 128

 Interests most closely linked to personality
• Conventional- has been linked to conscientiousness
• Enterprising- has been linked with extraversion
• Social-has been linked to all personality factors

Question 129

What are factors of the RIASEC model?

Answer 129

	RIASEC model
•	Realistic 
•	Investigative
•	Artistic
•	Social
•	Enterprising
•	Conventional

Question 130

Hows the RIASEC model represented?

Answer 130

 Psychometric properties of RIASEC model
• Hexagonal shape
• Interests that are more highly correlated are closer together
• Interests that are less correlated are further apart

Question 131

Describe features of the realistic interest of the RIASEC model

Answer 131

o Athletic, lacks verbal and interpersonal skills, prefers outdoors and hands-on vocations
o Doing things

Question 132

Describe features of the investigative interest of the RIASEC model

Answer 132

o Task oriented thinker with unconventional attitudes who fits well in scientific and scholarship positions
o Thinking ideas

Question 133

Describe features of the artistic interest of the RIASEC model

Answer 133

o Individualistic, avoids conventional situations, and prefers cultural pursuits
o Creating ideas

Question 134

Describe features of the social interest of the RIASEC model

Answer 134

o Use social competencies to solve problems, likes to help others, prefers teaching or helping professions
o Helping people

Question 135

Describe features of the enterprising interest of the RIASEC model

Answer 135

o Leader with good selling skills who fits well in business and managerial positions
o Managing people

Question 136

Describe features of the conventional interest of the RIASEC model

Answer 136

o Conforming and prefers structured roles such as bank teller
o Confirming data

Question 137

What is intelligence-as-knowledge and how is it tested?

Answer 137

o Intelligence-as-Knowledge
 Similar to Gc but broader and more encompassing (not just academic)
 Gc is often determined historically (use knowledge from a long time ago)
 Test of intellectual performance that is contextual
 Development trajectory similar to Gc
 Accumulative pattern across much of adult lifespan

Question 138

What is a criticism of the PPIK abilities?

Answer 138

• Argument is not that these PPIK abilities are all measuring aspects of the same thing (not based on common process ideas), but is based on fact of group of people that have similar profiles in these cluster groups
o Distinct attributes contribute interactively in the development of abilities, competencies and expertise

Question 139

Describe how abilities and interests develop in tandem and influence each other

Answer 139

o With subsequent successful attempts at task performance, interest/motivation increases and knowledge in the task increases -> expertise will develop
o With subsequent unsuccessful attempts at task, interest and knowledge declines-> expertise will not develop

Question 140

What determines the probability of success in a particular task domain?

Answer 140

o Ability levels determine the probability of success in a particular task domain

Question 141

What determines the motivation for attempting a task?

Answer 141

o Personality and interests determine the motivation for attempting a task

Question 142

Why is assessing content in adults more important than assessing content in children?

Answer 142

• During childhood, common educational experiences limit inter-individual differences in specialised knowledge as education determined by parents, teachers
o The extent that hobbies and interests in other extracurricular activities develop, and are motivating, expertise develops
• As one moves away from homogenous experience, differentiation in skills and knowledge increases, inter-individual differences grow as can pursue interests
• Therefore, in assessing abilities in adult perspective, content is more important than in child assessments

Question 143

What happens to avocational knowledge, occupational knowledge and domain-specific knowledge as age increases?

Answer 143

• Avocational knowledge and occupational knowledge increase from adolescence up to middle/late adulthood and then plateau
• Despite declines in intelligence-as-process during adulthood, domain-specific knowledge and expertise tend to increase during the same period

Question 144

What is the effect of trait complexes on knowledge?

Answer 144

• Trait complexes affect the direction and intensity of the investment of cognitive effort and ultimately lead to differentiation between individuals in the breadth and depth of knowledge/expertise acquired during adulthood.

Question 145

What are the 4 trait complexes?

Answer 145

o Social
o Clerical/conventional
o Science/math
o Intellectual/cultural

Question 146

What personality and interests are included in the social trait complex?

Answer 146

o	Social
	Enterprising interests
	Social interests
	Extroversion personality construct
	Social potency personality construct
	Well-being personality construct

Question 147

What personality and interests are included in the clerical/conventional trait complex?

Answer 147

o	Clerical/conventional
	Perceptual speed
	Conventional interests
	Control 
	Conscientiousness 
	Traditionalism

Question 148

What personality and interests are included in the science/math trait complex?

Answer 148

o	Science/math
	Math reasoning
	Visual perception
	Realistic
	Investigative

Question 149

What personality and interests are included in the intellectual/cultural trait complex?

Answer 149

o	Intellectual/cultural
	Investigative interest
	Gc
	Ideational fluency
•	Creative/divergent thinking 
	TIE 
•	Typical Intellectual engagement 
	Openness to experience
	Artistic interest
	Absorption
•	Working on task and get too engaged

Question 150

Describe which trait complexes and domain knowledge are related to fluid intelligence

Answer 150

o Gf- leads to higher science/math, which leads to physical sciences/technology domain knowledge

Question 151

Describe which trait complexes and domain knowledge are positively related to crystallised intelligence

Answer 151

o Gc- related to intellectual/cultural cluster, which leads to physical sciences/technology, social sciences, humanities, current events and business domain knowledge

Question 152

Describe which trait complexes and domain knowledge are negatively related to crystallised intelligence

Answer 152

o Gc negatively influences clerical/conventional and social traits
 Clerical/conventional had higher scores in business domain and lower scores in all other domains (physical sciences/technology, social sciences, humanities, current events)
 Social had higher scores in interpersonal knowledge but lower scores in physical sciences/technology and humanities domain knowledge

Question 153

What are Ackerman’s research conclusions?

Answer 153

• Middle-aged adults have been shown to be more knowledgeable on several broad and specific domains of knowledge when compared with younger adults
o Supportive of the notion that focused cognitive investment over extended periods of time yields clear differences between individuals in depth and breadth of expertise
• Measures of Gf, which declines as adults enter middle-age, fail to fully account for either individual differences in knowledge structures (except maybe in the physical sciences) or the fact that middle-age adults know more than younger adults in many areas
o Gc measures are more predictive, but do not capture the rich sources of the breadth and depth of domain-specific knowledge
• Science/math and intellectual/cultural trait clusters are supportive of domain knowledge acquisition, whilst social and clerical/conventional clusters impede knowledge in domains not directly related to them
• Real-world relevant declarative knowledge acquisition is more dependent on Gc than Gf, but both are important
• Too little attention has been paid to knowing how to do things- that is, assessing ability predictors of procedural knowledge acquisition in adults
• Almost no attention has been paid to tacit knowledge
o This is changing- looking at practical and emotional intelligence now

Question 154

Describe the importance of general factor g to expertise as people go from novice to expert

Answer 154

o Relatively more important early in life (as intelligence-as-process)
o Importance diminishes (but is certainly not limited) as individuals progress from common educational experiences (primary and high-school) to differentiated experiences (university and occupation)
 As individuals move from common educational experiences to occupational ones, knowledge and expertise develop in increasingly differentiated repertoires

Question 155

What does g theory fail to explain in the real world?

Answer 155

• Mainstream g- theory (Spearman) generally fails to take account of either aging effects or, more broadly, development in general across the lifespan
• g theory has difficulties in explaining performance differences between individuals of different education systems
• g theory fails to account for a large portion of the individual differences variance in developed knowledge and expertise

Question 156

Describe Sternberg’s interpretation of developing expertise

Answer 156

• Sternberg- developing expertise
o Implications of PPIK might be that with sufficient motivation, interests and investment of resources, anyone can achieve expertise

Question 157

Describe Ericsson’s interpretation of developing expertise

Answer 157

• Ericsson- it is the difference in motivation, not innate talent, that determines whether expert performance is reached in any domain- at least 10 years required for expertise

Question 158

Did Ackerman agree with Sternberg’s and Ericsson’s interpretation of developing expertise? Why/why not and what did he base this from?

Answer 158

• Ackerman suggests that this is not the case. Talent (intelligence as process) is important
o Based on findings that some clusters of traits are facilitating and some are not suggests that some people will not be able to achieve expertise in particular area

Question 159

How do general ability tests attempt to remove the benefits of specific expertise? How does this work?

Answer 159

o Sampling is very broad and content is not associated with expertise
o Tests of maximal effort, when presented in decontextualized formats, are likely to be less influenced by cognitive investment toward developing expertise in any specific domain, though the cumulative effects of investment across domains can be expected to influence performance somewhat
o Suggests that tests of general intelligence are likely to have diminished associations with individual differences in the development of expert knowledge when compare with measures that are more appropriate to the assessment of typical levels of cognitive investment over extended periods of time

Question 160

What do achievement (knowledge) tests focus on and what will impact its results?

Answer 160

• Achievement (knowledge) tests (and success in general) focuses only on specialised knowledge domain
o Without the application of directed cognitive effort toward domain-knowledge acquisition over extended time, performance on specific achievement tests will suffer

Question 161

What do intelligence tests assume and what is a problem with this assumption?

Answer 161

• When doing intelligence test, assumption is that you are motivated to do the best you can-assumes maximal performance
o Goal of assessments was explicitly to measure the performance of an individual at his/her level of maximum cognitive effort- individuals who did not try hard on such assessments effectively invalidated the inferences that could be made on the basis of the resulting test scores
o In everyday life, don’t tend to run at maximal performance
o When it comes to expertise, the traditional concept of ability-as-maximal-performance leaves a lot to be desired

Question 162

How does standardisation of situational variables occur in an experimental paradigm?

Answer 162

o Standardization of situational variables through treatments and experimental conditions

Question 163

What is the aim of the experimental paradigm?

Answer 163

o Investigate cause and effect relationships between different attributes of the task on results

Question 164

What is an important feature of the experimental paradigm and how is it achieved?

Answer 164

o Control is an important feature
 Random assignment
 Calculate means through p tests/ analysis of variance
 Standardize testing environment

Question 165

Have experimental paradigms succeeded in exploring individual variance?

Answer 165

o But if trying to understand individual differences, then just comparing means across conditions is incomplete
o The goal of experimental psychologists is to control behaviour and variation within treatments is proof the experimentalist has not succeeded- individual variation is cast into “error variance” (treated as noise)
 Less variability impact, the better it is
 Ignore and minimise individual variability

Question 166

What is the aim, drive and focus of correlational psychology?

Answer 166

o Goal is to predict variation within a treatment
o Driven by the development of factor analysis and correlations
o Focus on relations between performances on multiple tests to understand where variability is coming from

Question 167

Describe what old differential psychology, aimed to measure and what it actually did

Answer 167

• Differential psychology
o Differential psychology was unable to identify the mental processes that underlie intelligent functioning
o Instead, differential psychology produced theories that described the organization of individual differences in traits thought to comprise human intelligence

Question 168

Why did Cronbach propose that it is important to consider individual differences in aptitude when designing new treatments? How did he do so?

Answer 168

• Thought that the issue with psychology was that investigators were obsessed with one method or the other, and weren’t thinking about psychology holistically
• Suggested that should look at aptitude treatment interactions
o Can compare effectiveness of different experimental treatments according to one’s aptitude (look at average of aptitude across individuals)
o Would test rank ordering of differences in analysis of variance
• Cronbach argues that it is important to consider individual differences in some way
o We can assign people of a particular aptitude to the treatment that’s most effective for them
 Helps understand how aptitude plays out in academic performance
o If construct set of tasks with an understanding of nature of aptitude and how it impacts on performance, can target people of a particular aptitude with the best outcome
 However, it is difficult to replicate aptitude specific effects (oversimplification)
 Practical and resource constraints on individualization- not practical for mass education world

Question 169

What are attempts at integration between experimental and correlational psychology since 1956?

Answer 169

 Aptitude-treatment interactions
o Snow (1966)
 Componential analyses: correlation with psychometric tests
o Sternberg (1977): Hunt (1980)
 Differences in skill learning as a function of aptitude
o Ackerman (1987)
 Working Memory and control processes in intelligence
o Embretson (1995)
 Working memory, controlled attention, PFC, Gf
o Engle, Kane and Tuholiski (1999)
 Working memory and binding
o Oberauer et al (2003)
 Latent-trait theory (between vs within)-taking theories developed by factor analysis and trying to apply those to understand what is happening within the individual is flawed
o Bosboom et al (2004)
 Relational integration and Gf
o Birney et al (2002; 2009; 2019)

Question 170

Describe Guilford’s views on psychological factors and function and if this view was accepted

Answer 170

o Guilford (1967)
 It is only by correlating scores on a test with scores on other tests that we can test any hypothesis as to what it measures psychologically
 In the search for the meaning of aptitude factors, we can take one more easy but very significant step to tie factors to psychological theory. This step is to say that such a factor is also a psychological function.
 But this assumption was challenged

Question 171

Can studying correlation be used to study intelligence processes?

Answer 171

o Studies of individual differences never comes to grips with the process or operation by which a given organism achieves an intellectual response- studying correlation doesn’t give us process of response. Indeed, it is difficult to see how the available individual differences data can be used even as a starting point for generating a theory as to the process nature of general intelligence or of any other specified ability (McNemar 1964)

Question 172

What did Lohman and Oppel (1993) outline as the cause for failure to identify processes of intelligence?

Answer 172

o Failure to identify processes of intelligence originated in the failure to consider aspects of tests that have an impact on performance during the test

Question 173

What did Lohman and Oppel (1993) explain as a obstacle to measurement theory?

Answer 173

o The generally accepted idea of test theory as applied statistics precluded the development of a structural theory of measurement needed for the measurement of processes

Question 174

Describe Lohman and Oppel’s (1993) view on measurement models?

Answer 174

o It is useful to distinguish between tests in their observation designs and test scores as reflections of particular measurement models
o Measurement models (structural theory) of test items are needed: consider the component processes of test performance

Question 175

Have component scores been useful in explaining individual differences in intelligence? Why/why not?

Answer 175

o However, component scores have not been particularly useful, they don’t explain individual differences
 Sternberg linked a lot of component processes to intelligence- not very successful because of methodology and statistics
• lot of these challenges have since been met/partly addressed

Question 176

Why haven’t scientists been successful in studying individual differences in intelligence?

Answer 176

 Haven’t been successful in studying differences because
• Have focused efforts on the measurement of component processes rather than on the measurement of qualitative differences in knowledge and strategy
• Had underestimated the impact of several methodological issues
• Had applied efforts to wrong types of cognitive tasks
o Individual differences is thwarted by talking only about correlation and factors- not much information on processes going on
 Did not have clear conception of what a process might be, or how particular aspects of a test might elicit those processes
o Experimental psychologists have largely intentionally ignored individual differences and tried to minimise variability whether possible

Question 177

According to Lohman and Oppel 1993, when is the cognitve approach to measurement most useful?

Answer 177

o Cognitive approach to measurement is most useful when applied to tasks designed to elicit responses that reveal qualitative differences between individuals in knowledge and strategy

Question 178

What is the difference between experimental and differential tasks

Answer 178

 Experimental tasks are founded on differences between processes/conditions
 Differential tasks are focused on differences between individuals

Question 179

In differential tasks, what is a major criterion for item selection for a test and how is that performance analysed? Why is the analysis if performance method a problem?

Answer 179

 Differential tasks are focused on differences between individuals
• A major criterion for item selection for a test is based on concept of reliability (repeatability of measurement throughout time)
• Not only do we average items within a single test, but also average performance between tests if looking at a concept- means that lose notion of process going on in single task themselves
o This different process could be important to understand from an individual differentiation perspective

Question 180

Is within or between subject design better used as a way to understand individual processes?

Answer 180

Within-subjects design

Question 181

What is the information-processing approach and what are its assumptions?

Answer 181

 Information-processing approach treats mental activities as different operations performed on symbols and symbol structures (mental representations)
 Central assumptions-
o Mental activities are decomposable into a series of relatively independent processes or operations
o For each mental operation, a set of task conditions exist that, when varied, will exert a selective influence on these particular processes
o These internal processes may produce externally observable effects on behaviour
 This is foundation of experimental psychology

Question 182

What needs to be done in order to benefit from the information-processing perspective? How could this be done?

Answer 182

 In order to benefit from the information-processing perspective, we need to reconceptualise the measurement process
o Measurement as applied statistics
 Need to consider less
 Goal: to compare individuals

Question 183

What is classical test theory?

Answer 183

 Most often based on classical test theory-
• Observed score= True score + error
• Parallel items are selected from a universe of possible items-all items are essentially the same when comes to estimation of true score
• Does not matter what different types of items are together, it is always that true score that is being tapped

Question 184

Who proposed measurement as a substantive theory?

Answer 184

Guttman (1971)

Question 185

What is the goal of measurement as a substantive theory?

Answer 185

• Goal: to assess the structure of relationships among observations

Question 186

What is the measurement as a substantive theory?

Answer 186

• Designing a procedure for classifying observations on the basis of a structural regression hypothesis introduces substantive theory into the domain of measurement theory
o This substantive theory replaces a merely statistical justification for attaching meaning to scores

Question 187

How are items selected to target underlying processes during measurement theory?

Answer 187

In controlled and structured way

Question 188

What do statistical theories allow one to do?

Answer 188

• Statistical theories allow one to make inferences about aspects of this universe from samples of observations

Question 189

What is a measurement procedure?

Answer 189

• A measurement procedure is a procedure for ordering observations according to a structural regression hypothesis

Question 190

What is a structural hypothesis for measurement?

Answer 190

o A structural hypothesis for measurement imposes an ordered set of categories on the observations such that this order will yield monotone regressions from the dependent variable(s) to the categories

Question 191

What is the primary purpose for manipulating an item difficulty or task demands?

Answer 191

• The primary purpose for manipulating item difficulty or task demands is to test hypotheses about the psychology of the test

Question 192

What is one of the problems of a theory of process measurement?

Answer 192

• One of the problems for a theory of process measurement is to explain intraindividual variance that results from differences in processing demands of different task conditions as systematic variance

Question 193

Describe how tasks solved from an experimental individualistic psychology perspective are analysed?

Answer 193

o Link processes to task characteristics (experimental factors)
o Individual differences that we observe: people doing these tasks get different scores depending on certain items
o Construct representation of what is happening at individual differences level
 Can do that with regression equation
 Capture what sources of differences we see in overall performance with equation:
• Performance= average ability 1+ average ability 2+….+ error
 Isolates processes- decomposing process

Question 194

What are the two aspect of individual differences model that need to be explored and separated?

Answer 194

• Observational design

- Measurement design

Question 195

Describe the purpose and process of observational design for individual differences model

Answer 195

• Judicial selection of items to measure
• The purpose of the observational design is to structure selection of items so that defensible inferences about the theoretical constructs or attributes can be made
• Random selection of items from the universe of possible items is not appropriate
o Bias in measurement by specific items ending up in the test
o Bias for some individuals if they have different profiles of strength on the different processes
• Observations should be arranged in such a way that a test of the independence of these component processes is possible
o One way to accomplish this would be to use a factorial design
• Suggests that different responses by the same person n different items may be systematic
o Within-subject variability (in part) due to different systematic structural features of the task

Question 196

What is measurement design for individual differences model used for and what is it?

Answer 196

• A procedure to assign a single value to an object of measurement
• Measurement model is used to specify the rules that will be used to score, classify or combine objects of observation

Question 197

How can different measurement models be evaluated for a given observation design?

Answer 197

o Different measurement models can be evaluated for a given observation design by combining and contrasting performance on different item sets in different ways

Question 198

What is the object of measurement in psychometric tests and how is it measured?

Answer 198

• Traditionally (psychometric), the object of measurement is simply the person
o Some aggregate score (total, mean) from randomly selected items
o Using total score aggregates within-subject variance across items and relegates it to the residual (error)
o Psychometric accounts of mental testing treat items as independent elements of behaviour

Question 199

Describe measurement in process analysis

Answer 199

• But process analysis allows multiple objects of measurement to be specified
o Process analysis- set up theory and use items to suit that specific theory
o This allows underlying attributes of process to be observed

Question 200

What are assumptions of differential psychology?

Answer 200

• Differential psychology assumption that latent dimensions are stable

Question 201

What is an assumption of dimensional/factor analytic theories?

Answer 201

• Dimensional/factor analytic theories
o Assumption: an individual’s score/value on a factor (latent dimension) is a stable characteristic (of that person) that explains behaviour consistencies across relevant situations regardless of their nature

Question 202

Are structural hypotheses relevant in dimensional/factor analytic theories?

Answer 202

o A structural hypothesis is not relevant because attribute is assumed constant (Observed score= true score + expected)
o That is, the score is assumed identical across all observation conditions

Question 203

What assumption does dimensional/factor analytic theories conflict with?

Answer 203

o These dimensional/ factor analytic theories conflict with the assumption made in research that aims to describe how subjects achieve the responses they give (that is information-processing approaches)
 Say result due to factor without reflecting on processes

Question 204

Describe how factor analytic theories differ from theories of individual differences

Answer 204

o Dimensional/factor analytic theories rest on a view of measurement that is fundamentally different from that of dimensional theories of individual differences
 The factor analysis model gives total aggregation score and ignores performance on multiple items individually- aggregates all of these together
• Doesn’t take into consideration within-subject differences in score
• If there is systematic reason for these differences, then need to know these

Question 205

How is componential analysis accomplished?

Answer 205

• Componential analysis- accomplished by specifying a limited number of component processes that together can be assumed to account for task performance

Question 206

Describe how a process model is constructed

Answer 206

• For each component process, a variable must be specified that can be assumed to exert a selective and salient influence on that particular component process
• To ensure that the proposed processes are not made up, certain constraints on the class of possible models are required in order to allow for empirically testable predictions
• Tests for the validity of such a task-performance model focus on formal aspects as implied by the class of possible models as on substantive properties dictated by theoretical suppositions

Question 207

Describe the process model as a means for process inference

Answer 207

• Process model as means for process inference-
o Function of a process model within a theory of test design is to relate observations to theoretical concepts about processes

Question 208

Describe the process model as imposing an ordering among conditions of observation

Answer 208

• Process model imposes an ordering among conditions of observation
o Process model enables the test designer to impose an ordering on the categories o observations such that it yields monotone regressions from the dependent variables to the categories of observation

Question 209

Describe the process model as a target variable

Answer 209

• Process model as target variable
o If subjects solve a task in different ways, then they can be classified on the basis of the information-processing model that best describes their performance

Question 210

What are the componential processes of the mental rotation task?

Answer 210

• Time required for encoding depends on the discriminability or complexity of stimulus figures
• Comparison process is assumed to check whether the remaining parts of the figure are identical under transformation
• The idea is that varying the conditions of any task facet will result in different task loads on the corresponding component processes
• The total response time is conceived of as being composed of a train of successive component processes

Question 211

How is the dynamic nature of processes underlying intelligence currently aiming to be studied?

Answer 211

• Advocate for
o Investigation of repeated observations
 Clustered within individuals
• Each response made is recorded
• Those responses are clustered within-individuals
 Under systematic conditions (experimental control)
• Entails
o Within-subject designs and analytics
 Multi-level models (LMER)
 Latent growth-curve models (SEM)
• Hypothesis testing
o Experimental manipulations hypothesised theoretically to make differential demands on intelligence
• Aim:
o To better understand the dynamic nature of processes underlying intelligence

Question 212

Describe how cognitive flexibility was studied and the problems with this outlook

Answer 212

• There exists a large body of research that has studied cognitive flexibility as an executive function assessed through shifting and set-switching tasks
• This approach has been criticized as overly narrow and reductionist, thereby undermining the relevance of cognitive flexibility beyond tightly controlled cognitive tasks
• Historically, understanding intelligence has been a between-subject endeavour
• Psychometrics are unable to identify the mental processes that underlie intelligent functioning
• Within-subject level processing must be incorporated in between-subject measurement models
• Need theoretically substantive within subject experimental manipulations

Question 213

How does current literature suggest that cognitive literature be understood?

Answer 213

• The extant literature suggests understanding cognitive flexibility as
o A cognitive approach to novelty processing
o As a conative (attraction) disposition towards novelty

Question 214

How is cognitive flexibility reflected?

Answer 214

• Cognitive flexibility is reflected in adaptive performance which emerges as a strategic response to novelty in dynamic environments

Question 215

Are between or within subject designs better for understanding dynamic decision making? Why?

Answer 215

• Cannot operationalise it through correlates of problem solving that almost exclusively relies on between-subject designs which is limited in its capability to serve as the foundation for understanding dynamic decision making
o It is your response to a particular task condition that defines it as dynamic
o If task conditions are not controlled, then don’t know what the dynamic aspect is
o Need to use within-subjects design

Question 216

Describe the Wisconsin card sorting test

Answer 216

• Sort 64 cards to match either
o Colour (red, blue, yellow or green)
o Form (crosses, circles, triangles or stars)
o Number of figures (one, two, three, four)
• The sorting rule changes from colour to form or number without the person being informed
• Have to rely on feedback and working memory to adapt and figure out which rule is applicable in the duration of the test

Question 217

What does the Wisconsin card sorting test test?

Answer 217

• Tests cognitive flexibility and dynamic processes through structured conditions
o If unable to adapt to everchanging rules, then not cognitively flexible

Question 218

What do participants have to do in the Wisconsin card sorting test?

Answer 218

• Requirement for participant
o Monitor for rule changes
o Shift sets accordingly
o Sort cards following the new sorting rule

Question 219

How is the Wisconsin card sorting test scored?

Answer 219

• Scoring (most common)

o Set shifting (flexibility) difficulties indicated by total number of preservative errors

Question 220

What is the latin square task and what is it testing?

Answer 220

• Latin square task (relational integration/executive function)-
o Within subject manipulation:
 Relational complexity load manipulations (solve in either row or column (2D), or where information across row and column is needed (3D) or where multiple rows and columns are needed (4D))
 working memory load manipulations through different step requirements
o Across a row or column, each object can only appear once
o Someone is given incomplete latin square and told to solve it

Question 221

What are the hypotheses of the latin square task and their results?

Answer 221

o Hypothesis being tested
 Complexity effect- is the relationship between fluid intelligence and performance moderated by task manipulations (that is, relative complexity and steps working memory load)
 Those with high Gf are more capable of dealing with complexity than low Gf

o Results
 Significant relationship between working memory and fluid intelligence
 No significant relationship between relational complexity tasks and fluid intelligence

Question 222

What is the design of the latin square task?

Answer 222

o Design-

 2 (steps) * 3 (RC) with Gf as covariate

Question 223

What is Raven’s progressive matrices testing and what is it?

Answer 223

• Raven’s (psychometric assessment)- within subject manipulation: item-difficulty and item-order (learning) manipulations
o Set up as measure of fluid intelligence
o 36 items in raven’s progressive matrices and 40 minutes to solve them
 Items are ordered in terms of difficulty
o Knowledge of the task improves over item difficulty increase, whilst performance decreases over items difficulty increase

Question 224

Describe the effect of neuroticism on performance in different aspects of the Raven’s progressive matrix task

Answer 224

 In terms of the performance due to difficulty effect, those with high levels of neuroticism performed better as difficulty increased than those with low neuroticism
• Attributed this to arousal
 In terms of learning due to difficulty effect, those with low levels of neuroticism learned better as difficulty increased than those with high levels of neuroticism
• Attributed this to worry

Question 225

Describe the different conditions of the arithmetic chain task

Answer 225

• Arithmetic chain task (relational binding)- within subject task manipulation

o Control: arithmetic reasoning
 Value of variables stays on the screen whilst equation to be solved is also on screen

o Retention: working memory
 Given 6 seconds to memorise variable values, which disappear when equation to be solved is on the screen with different variables corresponding to that equation. At the end, asked to recall the first set of variable values

o Relational binding conditions-relational binding is that we have nodes in our mind that bind some piece of information to particular characteristic

 Fixed binding: chunking via systematicity through ordering
• Given 6 seconds to memorise variable values
• After memorization, these variables are equated to other variables which are in the same alphabetical order than the previous variables
• Then need to solve equation using those different variables
• Then recall the original variable values

 Random binding: chunking via systematicity not possible
• Given 6 seconds to memorise variable values
• After memorization, these variables are equated to other variables which are in the different alphabetical order than the previous variables
• Then need to solve equation using those different variables
• Then recall the original variable values

Question 226

Describe the hypothesis of the arithmetic chain task, how these are measured and the associated findings

Answer 226

o If relational binding is important to fluid intelligence, the random binding condition should be more related to fluid intelligence
 Fluid intelligence measured in spatial span working memory storage task simultaneous with processing measurement involving identification of symmetrical figures
 Fluid intelligence also measured through raven’s progressive matrices task
 Fluid intelligence is the commonality between the two
o Results
 As people have more fluid intelligence, performance in all conditions increases
 Those with higher levels of fluid intelligence have less differences between the fixed and binding tasks than those with lower levels of fluid intelligence
 Relational binding may be related to fluid intelligence

Question 227

What does complex solving as an ability require?

Answer 227

o Complex problem solving as an ability that requires
 Self-regulation of psychological processes
 Creativity
 A bricolage type of solution
 High stakes challenges
 Cognitive ability

Question 228

What was complex problem solving recently defined as?

Answer 228

o Complex problem solving has been defined as not only a cognitive process, but also an emotional one strongly dependent on motivation and other self-regulated psychological processes

Question 229

What does complex problem solving as a task require?

Answer 229

 Real-world learning and performance

 Learning to manage a dynamic system

Question 230

Why is complex problem solving examined?

Answer 230

o Complex problem solving is examined because:
 The traditional approach to studying correlates of problem solving that almost exclusively relies on between-subjects designs, is limited in its capability to serve as the foundation for understanding dynamic decision making
 This combination provides an effective methodological paradigm for investigating real-world learning and performance, while allowing for experimental manipulations that are necessary to identify the moderating effects of other variables

Question 231

What is the purpose of a microworld?

Answer 231

o Microworlds- to manipulate variable and see how people deal with these manipulations

Question 232

What are the different simulation variables used in a microworld?

Answer 232

•	Input variables
o	Decision variables
o	Mediator variables
o	Moderator variables
•	Output variables

Question 233

What are decision variables in a microworld?

Answer 233

 Those for which the problem solver or learner sets the values

Question 234

What are mediator variables in a microworld?

Answer 234

 Those outside of the direct control of the learner

 Add complexity if they entail delays between inputs and outputs (e.g. across multiple decision timepoints)

Question 235

What are moderator variables in a microworld?

Answer 235

 Change relationship between inputs and outputs under specific conditions

Question 236

What are output variables in a microworld?

Answer 236

o Consequences of the input decisions plus effects due to intervening relationships within the model
o Can be decision-based or run-based

Question 237

Where are microworlds used and why?

Answer 237

 Microworlds used in business education and training to allow trainees to explore, make mistakes and gain experiences in risk-free virtual environments that do not impose real costs on the trainee or the organization
 Microworlds can provide a more dynamic and intrinsically engaging training experience than commonly used case-study discussions
 Often designed to accelerate learning of problem structure by collapsing long periods of history into short periods of simulation time

Question 238

What are dynamic performance parameters and measures in a microworld?

Answer 238

 Dynamic performance parameters and measures
• Mean penalty- traditional measure
• Attempts- how does performance change with learning
• Outflow management- dealing with variable or constant outflow
• Delay – dealing with decision delay (working memory)

Question 239

What predicts success in the mean penalty parameter of a microworld?

Answer 239

o	Reasoning predicts these
	Reasoning
	Verbal ability
	Numerical ability
	Abstract ability

Question 240

What predicts success in the attempts parameter of a microworld?

Answer 240

o Verbal reasoning predicts attempt number

Question 241

What predicts success in the outflow management parameter of a microworld?

Answer 241

o Mindsets predict outflow performance

o Not related to intelligence

Question 242

What predicts success in the delay parameter of a microworld?

Answer 242

o	Reasoning predicts this
	Reasoning
	Verbal ability
	Numerical ability
	Abstract ability

Question 243

Describe timeline in thinking about social intelligence

Answer 243

o Thorndike’s (1920)- 3 intelligence types:
 Abstract (ideas)
• Fluid intelligence
 Mechanical (objects)
• Manipulation of objects
 Social (people)
• The ability too understand and manage people- to act wisely in human relations
o Washington social intelligence test (1920s)
 Correlations between social intelligence and abstract intelligence is about 0.5 (about 25% overlap) -so high correlation
• Social intelligence is not a separate ability from abstract intelligence
o Wechsler (1950s)
 Social intelligence is just general intelligence applied to social situations

Question 244

What was emotional intelligence previously thought of as?

Answer 244

• In psychological research, used to think of emotional intelligence as social intelligence

Question 245

Describe who grew the field of emotional intelligence and if this rapid growth was a good thing

Answer 245

• In mid-1990’s, Goleman’s emotional intelligence book was published, which grew the field of emotional intelligence
o But when something grows quickly, it is not always well-founded: need slow, steady process to build good and well-founded ideas

Question 246

What are the two different theories of emotional intelligence?

Answer 246

o Ability models

o Mixed models

Question 247

What is the ability model of emotional intelligence and what is it made of?

Answer 247

 Emotional intelligence is a discrete set of abilities involved in processing and manipulating emotional information- it can be learned
• Emotion perception- ability to see and perceive some kind of emotion is going on
• Emotion facilitation- use emotions for some purpose
• Emotion understanding-the implications of emotion, predicting emotion, see complex network of emotion
• Emotion regulation-able to control emotions

Question 248

What is the mixed model of emotional intelligence?

Answer 248

 Emotional intelligence is a mix of personality, intelligence, social, belief and motivation factors.
 Integration of constructs- not a discrete thing

Question 249

What are two differing ways of measuring emotional intelligence?

Answer 249

o Ability scales (maximum performance)

o Rating scales (typical performance)

Question 250

What is the most commonly used ability scale measurement?

Answer 250

 E.g. MSCEIT test of emotional intelligence

• This test is the most commonly used as there are few ability-based instruments

Question 251

What is the problem with only having a few ability scale measurements?

Answer 251

o Generalizability
 Common ground across scales reveals general principles
 No way to know that narrow set of concepts being used to measure intelligence in that test generalise to a broader domain
 No way to validate this scale against other scales, which affects validity and accuracy
o Non-commercial alternatives for research
 Don’t want research to be tied to financial bias

Question 252

What is the difference in ability vs mixed scales of emotional intelligence in terms of:

• Correlation with certain measures
• Time of administration
• Number of scales present
• Reliability
• How measures are analyse

Answer 252

-Ability scales:
 Tend to not correlate with personality measures
 Strongly related to intelligence
 Time-consuming to administer
 Very few instruments
 More difficult to measure (tend to be less reliable)
• Hard to assess these- hard to define who is an expert and if their marking is reliable
 Depends on knowledge (in theory) so cannot be faked by subject response
 Measured by number of responses subject gets correct

-Rating scales
 High correlations with personality
• Sometimes very high-particularly for mixed model theories
 Quick and easy to administer
 Vastly out-number ability models
 High reliability (usually)
• But could be an artefact based on how scales are developed- not an intrinsic part of scale
 Transparent items are easily faked
• Subject can lie in the tests very easily to get the result the subject wants
 Take average of performance- average number on scales

Question 253

What is an example of a rating scale?

Answer 253

 E.g. Schutte self-report scale

Question 254

What is a stream 1 test of emotional intelligence?

Answer 254

o Stream 1
 Many fewer stream 1 tests than other streams
 Measure the ability theoretical model through ability scales
 Asks for demonstration of knowledge

Question 255

What is a stream 2 test of emotional intelligence

Answer 255

o Stream 2
 Measures the ability theoretical model through rating scale
 Asks about knowledge

Question 256

What is a stream 3 test of emotional intelligence

Answer 256

o Stream 3
 Measures the mixed theoretical model through rating scale
 Asks about variety of factors- has conceptual overlap with personality

Question 257

What is a trait emotional intelligence test?

• Models it tests
• Scale it uses

Answer 257

• Trait emotional intelligence

o Follows mixed model and rating scale

Question 258

What are the dimensions in the trait emotional intelligence test? Include example questions to test these

Answer 258

o Assumes 5 dimensions in emotional intelligence
 Intra-personal abilities (internal processes)
• Emotional self-awareness, assertiveness, self-regard, self-actualization, independence
o Example question would be “it’s fairly easy for me to express my feelings”
 Inter-personal abilities (external processes)
• Empathy, interpersonal relationship, social relationship
o Example question would be “my close relationships mean a lot to me and my friends”
 Adaptation
• Problem solving, reality testing, flexibility
o Example question would be “in handling situations that arise, I try to think of as many approaches as I can”
 Stress management
• Stress tolerance, impulse control
o Example question would be “it’s a problem controlling my anger”
 General mood
• Happiness, optimism
o Example question would be “I am satisfied with my life”

Question 259

What is an issue with the trait emotional intelligence test?

Answer 259

o Objectivity issue- rating value across different individual are likely to be extremely different

Question 260

In mixed models, what personality traits is emotional intelligence correlated to?

Answer 260

• Emotional intelligence highly correlated with in mixed models:
o Low neuroticism: -0.73 correlation with neuroticism
o High extraversion: 0.69 correlation with extraversion
o High openness to experience: 0.47 correlation with openness

Question 261

Describe the methods of Joseph and Newman’ 2010 meta-analysis

Answer 261

•	Joseph and Newman 2010 meta-analysis of emotional intelligence with personality, intelligence and job performance 
o	Sample more than 18,000
o	60 studies
o	Separately considered streams 1, 2 and 3 
	Conscientiousness 
	Emotional stability (neuroticism)
	Agreeableness
	Extraversion
	Openness to experience
	g (intelligence)

Question 262

Which streams did Joseph and Newman’s meta-analysis find to be correlated with personality the most (specify personality types) and intelligence the most?

Answer 262

o Correlations with personality:
 Stream 3>stream 2> stream 1
 Streams 2 and 3 had the highest correlation with neuroticism across their stream
 Agreeability was the trait most correlated with stream 1 when comparing other stream 1 correlations
o Correlations with intelligence
 Stream 1> stream 2 and 3
• Hence, personality is correlated to emotional intelligence, especially with mixed models, but not so much of an overlap (especially using the emotional intelligence as an ability model- stream 1) that it should not be studied as a separate entity

Question 263

Describe how the subsections in the stream 1 model correlate with intelligence and personality

Answer 263

o Examining stream 1 model as it is the one which treats emotional intelligence as separate entity
 Agreeableness is more correlated with managing emotions and perceive them
 However, intelligence is more correlated with understanding emotions

Question 264

Describe how the subsections in stream 1 correlate with job performance

Answer 264

o Stream 1-
 Emotion management- most highly correlated with job performance and high emotion labour
• 7% for high emotional labour jobs
 Facilitation of emotion- most lowly correlated with job performance and high emotion labour
 Correlations with job performance are positive but lower
 Emotional intelligence correlated more highly for higher emotional labour jobs than low emotional labour jobs

Question 265

What is emotion labour?

Answer 265

• Emotion labour- amount of positive emotional expression required by the job

Question 266

Describe stream 2 and 3’s prediction of job performance

Answer 266

o Stream 2 and 3-
 Prediction of job performance was good
 Better for stream 3 (mixed models) than stream 2 (ability models)
• Probably due to personality overlap (known relationships between personality and job performance)- confound
 Higher for high emotion labour than low emotion labour jobs

Question 267

Why should emotional intelligence be studied?

Answer 267

• Job performance-Explaining 7% of performance in non-trivial
o 3-4 additional weeks per year
 Employers want people with high emotional intelligence in high emotion jobs as would be putting more work into workplace
o Some jobs have few differences between people in IQ- in these jobs, other things explain job performance
• Job performance is not the only thing that emotional intelligence can predict
o Coping with stress
 Emotional intelligence explains 10-15% of differences in how people cope
o Happiness and wellbeing
 Emotional intelligence explains 29% of differences in eudaimonic wellbeing

Question 268

What was the army alpha examination in 1919 for intelligence and what did they find?

Answer 268

• Army alpha examination (1919)
o 18-60 year old’s examined
 Examined corps leaders- thought to be the most intelligent
o Found that Intelligence increases until about 20 and then decline

Question 269

Describe Owens (1953) follow up of the army alpha examination test, why he did it, what he did and what he found

Answer 269

• Owens (1953) followed up 127 males from army alpha examination (31 years later)
o Followed up this study due to its cross-sectional nature which made it confounded due to the life difference experiences between individuals, e.g. different nutrition across lifespan, different education…
o Results
 4 tests scores-> no change from their previous army scores (fluid intelligence stuff)
• Following directions
• Arithmetic
• Number series completion
• Analogies
 4 tests scores-> increase from their previous army scores (crystallised intelligence stuff)
• Practical judgement
• Vocabulary
• Disarranged sentences
• Information
 May have survivor bias-> certain number of people who are successful in life easier to track down
 Hence, when doing a within instead of between-subjects study, found that the army alpha examination results were contradicted
 Total scores showed increase of about 0.5 SD (7.5 IQ points)

Question 270

Describe the trends of fluid intelligence and crystallised intelligence as you age

Answer 270

• Fluid rises to young adulthood, then falls off in old age

* Crystallized rises and plateaus (or increases) until about 50 (roughly speaking)

Question 271

What other types of intelligence decrease in old age and could they explain why fluid intelligence decreases in old age?

Answer 271

o Decline could be due to other factors that decrease in old age that could influence test results
 Visual acuity
 Processing speed
 Carefulness
 Fluency
o Factors related to intelligence could impact performance on intelligence tests
 Abilities related to intelligence shows age-related change
o But even when control for these factors, still see that Gf declines with age

Question 272

What environmental factors are Gc and Gf associated with? Describe Perlmutter’s and Nyquist’s (1990) study that these results came from

Answer 272

•	Perlmutter and Nyquist (1990)
o	127 adults 20-90 years old
o	Gc positively associated with
	Age (medium effect)
	Education (strong effect)
	Physical health (weak effect)
o	Gf positively associated with
	Physical health (medium effect)
	Alcohol (small-medium effect)
•	But may be not alcohol itself, but because of increased social engagement 
	Mental health (small effect)
o	Gf is negatively associated with age (very strong effect)
•	Further analysis of these results-> relationships between age on Gf and Gc remain, even when other factors are controlled for

Question 273

Describe what Flynn did to find the flynn effect and his hypothesis

Answer 273

• Evaluated all available data for Stanford-Binet and Weschler tests normed between 2932-1978
o Tests normed to mean=100 and SD=15
o Allows for comparison over time
• Flynn applied uniform scoring methods across samples
• If systematic increase in scores, then scores from earlier tests higher than those from later tests once norming is taken out

Question 274

What is the Flynn effect? Give an example

Answer 274

• Flynn found that, over time, the IQ averages were increasing
• Americans appear to have made from one generation to another, about 14 IQ points over 46 years
• People seem to be scoring better in IQ tests- people are getting smarter

Question 275

Describe Dickinson and Hiscock 2010’s study about intelligence. Does the Flynn effect account for age-related fluid intelligence decline?

Answer 275

• Dickinson and Hiscock 2010
o Cross-sectional group norms for 20 year olds and 70 year olds
o Data from administration/technical manuals which describe where norms/averages have come from for:
 1981 Wechsler adult intelligence scale-revised
 1997 Wechsler adult intelligence scale- third edition
o Calculated differences in scores on 11 subtests
o Adjusted for Flynn effect
o Age-related IQ decline is reduced markedly after adjustment for the Flynn effect
 But even when you adjust for it, there is still the same phenomena

Question 276

Describe a possible caveat to the Flynn effect

Answer 276

• The huge fluid IQ gains, or even large Wechsler full scale IQ gains, have not been accompanied by cognitive gains of real-world significance. Flynn effect may not be due to intelligence gains, but due to the new design of tests to test intelligence.
o If we want to know whether real-world cognitive performance declines with age, there is no substitute for real world measures

Question 277

What are the 2 different types of IQ stability?

Answer 277

• More than 1 kind of stability:
o A lack of change over time
o Rank order stability

Question 278

What is rank order IQ stability?

Answer 278

 Minimal change in relative scores
 Those who scored higher than average at one timepoint score higher than average at later timepoints within the same group of people (same age-range)

Question 279

Describe Conley’s test to measure rank order stability, his results and a limitation of his test

Answer 279

• Conley (1984)
o Test-retest measures
 Correlations between measures at successive timepoints
o High correlations between measures means within-person stability
o Conley (1984) extrapolated from infancy data from data he already had
 Whilst there is low stability on measures of intelligence in early childhood

Question 280

Describe the Scottish mental health survey and what it found

Answer 280

• Scottish mental health survey- Deary, Pattie and Start 2013
o 1932 MHT no. 12, administered to 5500 11 year olds
o Re-tested at multiple timepoints
o Scores on Moray house test no.12 at 11 and 90 years old compared
 Tests of general mental ability (including verbal and numeric ability)
o Examined correlation between scores at 11 and 90
 r=0.67
o Examined correlations between scores on MHT and other tests (e.g. Raven’s progressive matrices) at 90
 Large correlations (r=0.51 to 0.75)
o Found that MHT scores show rank order stability over time
o Found that MHT test commensurate with modern IQ tests

Question 281

Describes patterns of IQ stability as age increases

Answer 281

 Whilst there is low stability on measures of intelligence in early childhood
o Stability of IQ increases with age, but still not perfect correlation

Question 282

Describe the method of Tucker-Drob and Briley’s (2014) study

Answer 282

• Tucker-Drob and Briley (2014)
o Find the source of stability/instability in IQ measures
 Find correlates of individual differences in IQ stability
o Looked at genetic vs environmental impact on cognition over time
o 15 longitudinal studies
o N=12,771- compared groups with strong genetic similarity compared to groups who had no genetic similarity at all
 4,548 monozygotic twin pairs raised together
 7,777 dizygotic twin pairs raised together
 34 monozygotic twin pairs raised apart
 78 dizygotic twin pairs raised apart
 141 adoptive sibling pairs
 143 nonadoptive sibling pairs

Question 283

According to Tucker-Drob and Briley’s (2014) study, across all ages, does genetics or environment have a greater impact on IQ?

Answer 283

 Across all ages, genetic impact greater than environmental impact

Question 284

According to Tucker-Drob and Briley’s (2014) study, are genes more impactful in childhood or adulthood?

Answer 284

 In childhood, genes are more impactful than in adulthood

 With age, impact of environmental factors increase

Question 285

According to Tucker-Drob and Briley’s (2014) study, describe the stability of general intelligence compared to Gf and Gc and an implication of this

Answer 285

 General intelligence is more stable than Gf or Gc

• Rank order stability in IQ scores could be coming from Gf and Gc due to test designs

Question 286

According to Tucker-Drob and Briley’s (2014) study, describe the effect of environment or genes in Gc stability and an implication of this

Answer 286

 Gc stability is less impacted by genes/ more impacted by environment
• Stability of Gc could be due to environment

Question 287

According to Tucker-Drob and Briley’s (2014) study, describe the effect of genes or environment in Gf stability and an implication of this

Answer 287

 Gf stability more impacted by genes/ less impacted by environment
• Decline in Gf across age could be genetic

Question 288

Describe Hultsch, Hertzog, Small and Dixon (1999)’s study on habits which prevent mental health decline

Answer 288

• Hultsch, Hertzog, Small and Dixon (1999)
o N=236 (137 women)
o 55-86 years
o Novel information dimension (learning languages, music… engaging in new stuff) has high correlation with performance in cognitive intelligence tests
 Environmental effects- staying engaged with the environment matters
• Constant engagement meant neuronal growth occurs even if decline occurs

Question 289

Describe historical research on sex differences in intelligence

Answer 289

• Terman (1916)
o Girls are more intelligent than boys [trivial size]
o Gc measures

• Spearman (1927)
o No sex differences
o Gc measures

• Wechsler (1944)
o Girls are more intelligent than boys [trivial size]
o Gc measures

• Cattell (1960s)
o No sex differences
o Start to get Gc and Gf measures

• Narrative review Court (1983)
o No sex differences
o Raven’s progressive matrices

• Narrative review Jensen (1998)
o No sex differences
o Raven’s progressive matrices

• Narrative review Mackintosh (1998)
o No sex differences
o Raven’s progressive matrices

• Meta-analysis Lynn and Irwing (2004;2005)
o Males are more intelligent than females
o Raven’s progressive matrices

Question 290

Describe the method of Lynn and Irwing’s meta-analysis

Answer 290

o Method
 57 studies in 30 countries (1939-2002)
 195 samples and N> 80000
 Measure of g= Raven’s progressive matrices

Question 291

Describe the findings of Lynn and Irwing’s meta-analysis

Answer 291

o Findings
 <15 years: no differences
 15-19 years: males 2 IQ points greater than females
 Undergrads: males 3-5 IQ points greater than females
 Adults: males about 5 IQ points greater than females
o Effect size-
 Greatest difference (adults) d=0.3

Question 292

What is Cohen’s d?

Answer 292

• Effect sizes in Cohens d: look at correlation between things and assess the strength of relationship regardless of statistical significance – know if it is big in practical and statistical significance

Question 293

Describe small, medium and large d effect

Answer 293

o 0.2 is small
o 0.5 is medium
o 0.8 is large

Question 294

Describe Pearson’s r in terms of small, medium and large r effect

Answer 294

• This is different to Pearson’s r
o 0.1 is small
o 0.3 is medium
o 0.5 is large

Question 295

What intelligence abilities do females have a moderate advantage for

Answer 295

• Moderate female advantage for:
o Spelling
o Language

Question 296

What intelligence abilities do females have a small advantage for

Answer 296

• Small female advantage for:
o Perceptual speed
o Speech production

Question 297

What intelligence abilities are there no sex differences for

Answer 297

•	No sex differences for:
o	Numerical ability
o	Reading comprehension
o	Abstract reasoning
o	Verbal reasoning 
o	Vocabulary 
o	Spatial relationships

Question 298

What intelligence abilities is there a small male advantage for

Answer 298

•	Small male advantage for:
o	Mathematics
o	Spatial visualisation
o	Spatial ability
o	Science

Question 299

What intelligence abilities is there a moderate male advantage for?

Answer 299

• Moderate male advantage for

o Spatial perception

Question 300

What intelligence abilities is there a large male advantage for?

Answer 300

• Large male advantage for
o Mental rotation
o Mechanical reasoning

Question 301

What is the effect size of the g difference between males and females and what is a potential explanation for this difference?

Answer 301

• Males have a higher g than females
o Small effect- d about 0.3
o Potential explanation
 Researchers have found that Raven’s matrices (the ‘g’ measure) measures spatial ability in addition to general reasoning
 When spatial abilities are controlled for, the gender difference disappears

Question 302

What is the effect size and direction of the spatial intelligence differences between males and females

Answer 302

• Males have higher spatial ability than females

o Large effect- d about 0.7

Question 303

What is the effect size and direction of the verbal intelligence/ perceptual speed differences between males and females?

Answer 303

• Females have higher verbal abilities and perceptual speed than males
o Small to medium effect- d of about 0.3-0.4

Question 304

What are different classes of reasons that can explain the fact that males have a higher spatial ability than females?

Answer 304

o Evolutionary perspectives
o Neurological perspectives
o Hormonal perspective
o Environmental perspective

Question 305

Describe why, evolutionarily, males may have a higher spatial ability than females?

Answer 305

 Male foraging hypothesis
• Navigating the land
• Awareness of the physical environment
• Throwing weapons to kill animals
 The range hypothesis
• Males seek out polygamous relations (females monogamous)- have to hunt out the land to find more women
o There is evidence for this
 Polygamous male animals are better maze learners than male monogamous animals
• Males had to cover a larger environmental range and experience more different environments: thus developed higher spatial abilities
 Warfare
• Males travel further to ambush other males
• Fight in new and changing environments

Question 306

What are neurological perspectives on the difference between male and female spatial intelligence/ verbal abilities

Answer 306

 While generally an oversimplification
• Language functions are lateralised to the left hemisphere
• Spatial functions are lateralised to the right hemisphere
• Tasks are solved more efficiently when solved in one section of the brain (either left or right) rather than both
 Research on mental rotation task (Rilea et al. 2014)
• No sex differences in performance (in their sample)
• Women use both sides of the brain, males use only the right side
• Differences in spatial ability may be due to the differences in lateralization

Question 307

What are hormonal perspectives on the difference between males and females in terms of spatial intelligence? Explain a study that could support this

Answer 307

 Route learning (Choi and Silverman 1996)
• Sex differences in route learning strategies
• Males use distance and cardinal (compass points) directions
• Females use landmarks and relative directions
• Testosterone levels in males (but not females) is positively correlated with male-biased route-learning strategies
o Maybe testosterone needs to be a certain amount to matter-> may be part of the story but probably not the entire story
 Mental rotation study (Charis et al.)
• Testosterone levels in males predicted performance in mental rotation tasks
• Hence, hormones might lead to observed sex differences in spatial abilities

Question 308

Describe the environmental perspective on why boys have higher spatial intelligence than gisla dna girls have higher verbal intelligence than boys

Answer 308

o Environmental perspective
 Toy choice (even in infants from 9 months)
• Boys want to play with trucks etc. -> involve spatial abilities
• Girls want to play with dolls -> involves verbal and social skills
 Education-subject choice
• Girls may not favour maths and science as they are stereotyped as masculine
• Overall differential experiences lead to differential ability acquisition
• Role of differing motivation, interests and encouragement (support)
 Socioeconomic status
• Gender difference in middle to high SES higher
o Access to technology (which can facilitate spatial abilities)
o Safe neighbourhood to explore
• No gender difference in low SES

Question 309

Describe issues with Lynn and Irwing’s (2004) meta-analysis on gender differences in intelligence

Answer 309

• Lynn and Irwing (2004) meta-analysis based on student sample
o Students are not representative samples
 More females complete high school and go to university
 Fewer lower ability males attend university
 More lower ability males drop out of university

Question 310

What may be a statistical explanation for the gender differences in abilities, especially considering a student-based sample?

Answer 310

• Average test scores are not the only important index- variability
o For revised Wechsler scales
 Variability of males tends to be greater (male SD= 15.3) than in women (14.5)
o Smaller differences for other test batteries, but males tend to be more variable
 More males than females achieve extreme scores on the revised Wechsler scales
o Differences in variability= differences in proportions with extreme scores
 Hence, males will be overrepresented as they have a higher average at the top half
• More males at the top and bottom of IQ
o Differences in abilities between gender could be due to statistical artefact

Question 311

Describe the gender variability in intelligence in Argentina and the study that led to this

Answer 311

• Flynn-Argentina
o Thought about differences in modernity and variability
o Looked at the Universidad Nacional of La Plata results of administered standardised Raven’s between 1996 and 2000
o 1695 students
o 13-30 years old
o Adjusted for differences in male drop-out rate
o When adjusting scores, there is only a small change

Question 312

Describe how gender variability changes as modernity increases

Answer 312

difference in variability between genders changes as modernity increases

Question 313

Describe New Zealand, Australia and South Africa gender variability in different populations

Answer 313

• New Zealand, Australia and South Africa
o Tests on Ravens Progressive Matrices 1984-1988
 In New Zealand, Australia and white South Africa, adjusted IQ scores for males vs females, found that females and males were pretty much equal
 More differences in coloured groups between genders due to different gender’s access to modernity

Question 314

Describe gender parity in estonia and how it was measured

Answer 314

• Estonia
o Standardised Ravens progressive matrices on 2691 12-18 year olds (1250 males)
 Score well on gender parity
 When adjusted, women’s IQ score is equal to that of men

Question 315

Describe Jensen and Eysenck’s data on black-white IQ differences and the basic premises of their paper+ purpose

Answer 315

o Jensen, Eysenck and the black white differences
 Looked at if it was worth trying to improve academic performance of some races of people
 Basic premises of their paper
• There is a genetic component to intelligence
• There are mean differences between races in intelligence
o Estimated race differences in IQ in the USA
 Asian > white (d is about 0.33, 5 IQ points)
 White > Hispanic (d is about 0.5, 7-8 IQ points)
 White > black (d is about 0.7, 10-15 IQ points)
• These differences are genetic rather than environmental in origin

Question 316

Describe the different parts of Murray and Herrnstein’s bell curve (1994)

Answer 316

o	The bell curve (1994)- Murray and Herrnstein
	Was in different parts:
•	Part 1- the cognitive elite
•	Part 2- IQ and social problems
•	Part 3- IQ and race
•	Part 4- IQ and social policy

Question 317

Describe part 1 of Murray and Herrnstein’s bell curve (1994)

Answer 317

• Part 1- the cognitive elite
o Social Darwinism in the US
 The more egalitarian a culture is, the more social Darwinism (those who are the smartest will be on top) will take place

Question 318

Describe part 2 of Murray and Herrnstein’s bell curve (1994)

Answer 318

• Part 2- IQ and social problems

o IQ relates to social problems (poverty, unemployment, crime welfare dependence, teenagers mothers etc)

Question 319

Describe part 3 of Murray and Herrnstein’s bell curve (1994)

Answer 319

• Part 3- IQ and race
o IQ differs between races and is lower for immigrants
o Low IQ races and immigrants have more children, create more social problems and are less successful

Question 320

Describe part 4 of Murray and Herrnstein’s bell curve (1994)

Answer 320

• Part 4- IQ and social policy
o Raising cognitive ability: best way to adopt out children of low-IQ mothers
o Put more money into gifted education and less into remedial
o Affirmative action- scale back ‘quota’ programs in favour of a colour-blind system
 Quota programs- workplaces/educational institutions need to have certain percentage of individuals from minority group

Question 321

What are the assumptions underlying Murray and Herrnstein’s bell curve (1994)

Answer 321

• US meritocracy/ social Darwinism
o IQ predicts success in life
o IQ is genetic
o Race is genetic
o Group differences in IQ are genetic and are therefore unchangeable
• Racial differences in IQ are mostly determined by genetic causes
o Lack of success (poverty, social problems) among black people is due to genetic causes
o Therefore, affirmative action/head start programs will not work

Question 322

Analyse the assumption the bell curve’s assumption that IQ predicts success in life

Answer 322

o IQ predicts success in life
 This assumption is slightly correct- about 25% of success at work and school (r=0.5 at best)
 But other factors predict success (e.g. conscientiousness)
• Poropat (2009) meta-analysis predicting academic achievement
• r= 0.25 for intelligence, r=0.22 for conscientiousness
 Terman’s termites (1921)-social indicators not related to IQ
• High IQ kids (IQ> 135): found that these children had more income, more education but less children (for women) but no differences in social indicators (suicide, alcoholism, divorce…)
 IQ is beneficial to a point (IQ 120-130 is the limit)- past this, become so different to people around you that it can make life harder

Question 323

Analyse the bell curve’s assumption that IQ is genetic

Answer 323

 This assumption is slightly correct-> differences in intelligence have a genetic component
• But heritability is much less than 1
• Current estimates indicate that IQ is between 40% and 70% genetic (most commonly accepted value= 50%)
 But intelligence tested needs to be specified
• The bell curve is mostly based on data from the ASVAB 1980 standardization sample
o ASVAB measures crystallised intelligence

Question 324

What are the components of the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB)?

Answer 324

o	Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB) consists of 8 subtests
	Science
	Arithmetic
	Work knowledge
	Paragraph comprehension
	Math
	Electronics
	Auto shop
	Mechanical comprehension

Question 325

Analyse the Bell curve’s assumption that race is genetic

Answer 325

o Race is genetic
 Is race genetic or is it a social construct
• Races people are placed into depends on priorities of historical context

Question 326

Analyse the bell curve’s assumption that group differences in IQ are genetic and are therefore unchangeable

Answer 326

o Group differences in IQ are genetic and are therefore unchangeable
 Implication that if IQ has a genetic component, then differences between groups have a genetic basis
 Differences within a group are entirely due to genetics if they have same environment
 Differences between two groups who have same genes but different environment are entirely due to environment
 In fact, heritability estimates are unrelated to possibility of training or improvement

Question 327

Analyse the Bell curve’s assumption that lack of success among black people is due to genetic causes

Answer 327

 Flynn’s argument
• Population IQ is increasing across time (about 3 points per decade)
• Black IQ is at 1950s white IQ level
o 1995 black environment could be equivalent to 1950s white environment

Question 328

Describe the moderators of the black-white IQ gap

Answer 328

• Time- the IQ gap has narrowed
o 1972: 15 point IQ gap
o 2006: 10 point IQ gap
• SES – the associated achievement gap is partly due to SES
o About half a standard deviation (7.5 points) is accounted for by SES variable
o SES variable may produce this achievement gap because:
 Difference in nutrition
 Differences in educational opportunities
 Differences in amount of time parent can spend with child
 Differences in social networks and support
• Age- the gap increases with age: both IQ and achievement gaps begin small and get larger

Question 329

Describe the aftermath of the bell curve

Answer 329

• APA taskforce responds with a report outlining the science of human intelligence
• Linda Gottfredson puts together a backlash against a backlash
o 25 principles that are meant to summarize scientific research on intelligence and group differences
o Takes a g approach to intelligence
o Signed by 52 intelligence researchers and published in the wall street journal

Question 330

What are some problems with Linda Gottdredson’s defense of the bell curve?

Answer 330

o But some of her arguments are questionable, invalid or flawed
 Assumption that IQ tests don’t measure things other than intelligence
• But we know that there are strong relationships between openness to experience to intelligence
 Assumption that IQ can be represented well by the bell curve
• But tests are designed to fit the bell curve- tests that don’t are discarded
• If didn’t define intelligence as being normally distributed, then it might not be normally distributed
 Assumption that IQ tests are not culturally biased
• But this is not the case due to measures crystallised intelligence-> different access to education in different cultures may result in different levels of crystallised intelligence

Question 331

Describe Lynn and Vanhanen (2002) wealth of nations

Answer 331

• Lynn and Vanhanen (2002)-IQ and the wealth of nations
o Mean IQ different for different nations (185 countries)
 Hong Kong = 107
 Australia= 98
 Sierra Leone= 64
o Mean IQ is positively correlated to GDP and other measures of wealth
 r=0.71-0.76 with GDP
o Argument 1- differences between countries have genetic basis
o Argument 2- differences in IQ cause the differences in wealth between nations

Question 332

What are critiscisms of Lynn and Vanhanen’s (2002) IQ and wealth of nations paper?

Answer 332

• Criticisms of the IQ and wealth of nations
o Estimation of IQ
 IQ estimated for 104 of 185 (56%) or countries reported (average of surrounding countries)
 Measured IQ from different time-points, different tests (not adjusted for Flynn effect)
o Invalid logic- cause of within group differences not necessarily the cause of between group differences
 Just because genetics explains differences within a population does not mean that it can explain differences between groups
o Causal direction is not clear
 IQ causes wealth or wealth causes IQ?
o Neglect of other important variables
 Motivation, structural factors, possibility of educational attainment
o Unsophisticated statistics
 Simple correlations- not appropriate for financial data (skew)
• Pearson correlations assume variables are normally distributed, but wealth is not normally distributed (Pareto’s curve)

Question 333

What does bias refer to in test fairness?

Answer 333

• In discussing test fairness, bias may refer to construct underrepresentation or construct-irrelevant components of test scores that differentially affect the performance of different groups of test takers

Question 334

Describe how construct irrelevant test bias occurs

Answer 334

 Some construct-irrelevant (or methodological) stimuli are more familiar to some groups than others, which may systematically bias the results against or towards a particular group
• Bias may relate to portability issues of the test

Question 335

What are group differences on construct-irrelevant aspects of the test called?

Answer 335

Bias

Question 336

What are group differences on construct-relevant aspects of the test called?

Answer 336

Real group differences

Question 337

What is a construct? What are some of its characteristics?

Answer 337

• A construct is some postulated (theoretical) attribute of people, assumed to be reflected in test performance
o Constructs are characteristics, traits, tendencies…
o Objective nature unclear
o Understood as behavioural/experiential contingencies
 If people are good at test that indicates construct then they are the construct
o Difficult to define and is invisible
o Look at test performance and assume it reflects underlying characteristic

Question 338

What does a definition of a construct rely on?

Answer 338

Relies on its nomological net

Question 339

What is a nomological net and what do they govern?

Answer 339

o Nomological net- series of lawful relations

o Govern behavioural/experiential contingencies

Question 340

What are confounds of nomological networks?

Answer 340

 Nomological networks can vary
• Prone to unconscious bias
• Reliant on culture
• Reliant on history- symbol use updates according to experience

Question 341

Are behavioural/experiential contingencies constant for everyone in the world?

Answer 341

o Contingencies vary across cultures and age groups

Question 342

Are constructs constant in the entire world?

Answer 342

 Constructs are culturally determined

Question 343

What do behavioural/ experiential contingencies rely on?

Answer 343

o Contingencies rely on
 Iconicity (resemblances)
 Indexality (context)
 Symbolicity (symbols used to identify things)

Question 344

What are ways of detecting/defining test bias?

Answer 344

• Differences between groups
• Bias as differences in prediction
• Differential item analysis

Question 345

Describe the method of detecting test bias through differences between groups and outline a problem with it

Answer 345

• Differences between groups
o Problem:
 Relies on construct definition and circularity
• Define construct: definition determines design of test to test that construct, but then test is sure to validate construct defined

• But if there is real difference in ability between groups, then it will not be detected
o Must be careful that definitions are loose enough to allow group differences that could occur to emerge
 Group differences in test performance alone cannot show test bias

Question 346

Describe bias as differences in prediction as a way of detecting test bias

Answer 346

• Bias as differences in prediction
o When the regression line is different for different groups, decisions will be biased
o Same scores on tests are predicting different outcomes for different groups

Question 347

Describe differential item analysis as a way of detecting test bias

Answer 347

• Differential item analysis
o Look at particular items/questions (not average test scores) to see if people are doing systematically better or worse at them

Question 348

Describe the history of Stanford-Binet test development

Answer 348

• 1905- Binet and Simon develop simple 30 item test
• 1908- Binet and Simon introduce mental age
• 1911- Binet and Simon expand to test adults
• 1916- Stanford-Binet-1 (Terman and Merrill) introduced intelligence quotient (ratio IQ)
• 1937- Stanford-Binet-2 (Terman and Merrill) used modern item analysis method
• 1960- Stanford-Binet-3 (Terman andMerrill) re-standardised test on 2100 people
• 1986- Stanford-Binet-4 (Thorndike, Hagen, Sattler) completely restructured the test (15 subtests)
• 2003- Stanford Binet-5 (Roid) redid the test based on five factors of intelligence (based on CHC theory)

Question 349

Describe what the stanford binet- 5 consists of and how it is delivered

Answer 349

o Five factors (fluid reasoning, knowledge, quantitative reasoning, visual-spatial processing, working memory), two domains (verbal and non-verbal) and ten subtests
o Have initial screening questions for starting point then see how far people progress through them
o Very formal process- no conveyance of emotion through body language from test provider

Question 350

Describe what is in the non-verbal domain of the stanford-binet-5

Answer 350

	Non-verbal domain
•	Fluid reasoning
o	Series/matrices
•	Knowledge
o	Procedural knowledge
o	Picture absurdities
•	Quantitative reasoning
o	Nonverbal quantitative reasoning 
•	Visual-spatial processing
o	Form board
o	Form patterns
•	Working memory
o	Delayed response
o	Block span

Question 351

Describe what is in the verbal domain of the stanford-binet-5

Answer 351

	Verbal domain
•	Fluid reasoning
o	Early reasoning
o	Verbal absurdities
o	Verbal analogies
•	Knowledge
o	Vocabulary
•	Quantitative reasoning
o	Verbal quantitative reasoning 
•	Visual-spatial processing
o	Position and direction 
•	Working memory
o	Memory for last sentences
o	Last words

Question 352

What are applications of intelligence tests?

Answer 352

• Diagnosis
• Policy
• Forensic applications
• Management/coaching
• Counselling
• Selection/placement

Question 353

Describe what diagnosis can be made based on intelligence tests

Answer 353

• Diagnosis
o Learning disabilities
o Intellectual disability
o Mental health conditions

Question 354

Describe how a diagnosis can be made based on tests

Answer 354

o Made by:
 Looking at differences in subtests of the intelligence scores
 Looking Difference between intelligence and achievement tests
 By looking at situational factors
 Reports from teachers, parents, test-takers
 Ruling out other causes (poor eyesight, hearing…)

Question 355

What is an example of diagnosis intelligence tests, what does it assess and how does it do so?

Answer 355

 Universal nonverbal intelligence test- second edition (UNIT-2)- used a lot in autism diagnosis
• Assesses general intelligence (g) via 3 composites:
o Memory- symbolic memory, spatial memory
 Measures strategies for recall of multiple salient features simultaneously e.g. content, colour, orientation, organisation and categorisation
o Fluid reasoning- analogic reasoning, cube design
 Measures pattern processing, awareness of visual-spatial juxtapositions, and understanding of geometric relationships
o Quantitative reasoning- nonsymbolic quantity, numerical series
 Measures numerical reasoning and relationships and number sense
• Investigates real-life impacts of results in these tests
• Scored with descriptive term scale

Question 356

Describe which policies can be made based on intelligence tests

Answer 356

o Educational policies
o Workplace policies
o Policies on mental illness
o E.g. NAPLAN gives guidance in educational improvement

Question 357

Describe what forensic applications intelligence testing has

Answer 357

o Diminished responsibility
o Custody decisions
o Litigation for injuries

Question 358

Describe what counselling can result from intelligence test results and how this counselling is conducted based on intelligence tests

Answer 358

o Educational decisions
o Career counselling
o Method:
 Consider background factors
 Consider educational history of success and failure
 Use of interest and ability tests to help identify strengths

Question 359

Describe what selection/placement can result from intelligence tests

Answer 359

•	Selection/placement
o	Educational opportunities
o	Job selection and promotion 
o	Other organizations (e.g. MENSA)
o	Armed services

Question 360

Describe educational opportunities based on intelligence tests and if these tests are fair to the entire population

Answer 360

 Opportunity class (OC) selection in government schools in NSW
• Optional testing for entrance into one of 73 selective classes in grades 5 and 6 of primary school
• Tests consist of 20 reading questions, 20 mathematics questions and 30 questions measuring general ability (g) and some of its subsections
o But is it appropriate to focus on only some subsections of g?
 Selective high schools
• Optional testing of final-year primary school students for entry into one of 21 selective high schools in NSW
• Tests are in reading, mathematics, general ability and writing
 But these tests are optional and hence only select for a certain population- some people might actually do really well but not get the opportunity to

Question 361

How well is intelligence correlated to school achievement? Provide evidence

Answer 361

 Intelligence and school achievement-
• Review papers:
o Jencks (1979)
 g and academic achievement: r=0.4 to 0.63
 6 longitudinal studies
o Kaufman and Lichtenberger (2005)
 g and academic achievement: r=0.5
o Mackintosh (1998)
 g and academic achievement: r=0.4-0.7
• Best estimate is that intelligence predicts school achievement at 25%
• Meta-analysis also support this- Poropat 2009

Question 362

Describe Poropat’s 2009 meta-analysis method

Answer 362

•	Meta-analysis also support this- Poropat 2009
o	N> 70000
o	Looks at personality of:
	Openness
	Conscientiousness
	Extraversion 
	Agreeableness
	Neuroticism

Question 363

According to Poropat’s 2009 meta-analysis, which factors contribute the most to school achievement throughout different grades

Answer 363

o Predictors of academic achievement at different levels of education
 Intelligence is more important in the early grades
• For primary school- intelligence accounts for about 25% of school achievement
• For high school and university- intelligence accounts for about 5% of school achievement
 Conscientiousness is always important
 Other personality variables are only important in the early grades

Question 364

Describe the correlation between intelligence tests and job performance

Answer 364

• General mental ability predicts 25% of job performance, with structured interviews and work samples also predicting 25% of job performance
• Early estimates that intelligence tests correlate- 0.35 to 0.45 with job performance

Question 365

Why was an alternative to intelligence tests in predicting job performance saught, and was this search successful?

Answer 365

there is an idea that intelligence testing can result in adverse impact in job selection
o 1978 US Federal guidelines on adverse impact
 Idea that IQ tests resulted in adverse impact for hiring decisions
o Search for alternatives that are just as predictive of job performance
 Peer-evaluations was the strongest indicator of job performance
 But alternatives are less fair- result in greater adverse impact against marginalised groups