integrative approach: etiological factors

Question 1

overview

Answer 1

(biological influences)

> genetics
neuroscience

(psychological influences)

> behavioural
cognitive

(emotional influences)

(cultural, social, and interpersonal influences)

(developmental influences)

Question 2

behavioural influences: genetics

Answer 2

Behaviour, personality, intelligence are polygenic - influenced by multiple genes and environment

All of which are influenced by environment

Specific genes/small groups of genes are associated with certain psychological disorders

Psychopathology influenced by many genes, each having a small effect

Genetic factors account for less than 50% of the variability in most psychological disorders (what else is influencing it? Enviroment)

The p factor study
>Correlates of high p
>Factors that raise p

Question 3

P factor study

Longitufnal study a long study that was looking at the structure of psychopathology. Participants in the study will repeatedly asses for mental health disorders between ages of 18-38.

When they correlated everything, they found 3 factors

Answer 3

Internalizing vulnerability (1) to depression and anxiety

Externalizing vulnerability (2) to antisocial and substance use diroders

Thought disorder vulnerability (3) to symptoms of psychosis

– the P factor can account to:

High p factor u are more likely to develop psychopatholgy, more likely to have severe, multiple disorders, psychopatholgy, impairment, partially genetic and also relates to neuroticism (more instability emotionally)

• Neuroticism correlates of high p
• Childhood maltreatment can raise p

Question 4

biological influences: genetics

diathesis-stress model

Answer 4

diathesis + stress -> psychological disorder

High p factor u are more likely to develop psychopatholgy, more likely to have severe, multiple disorders, psychopatholgy, impairment, partially genetic and also relates to neuroticism (mpre instability emotionally)

Neuroticism correlates of high p
Childhood maltreatment can raise p

Question 5

the diathesis-stress model is how we can relate psychological disorders in both nature and nurture

how?

Answer 5

Nature (diathesis) – what makes us vulnerable (any factor: biological factors - genetics can predispose u , brain anomalies / sociocultural factor would be being broughyt up in chronic stress can bed ur diathesis which makes u vulnerable) but its more than genes ex: parent who has anxiety then that would mean genetically u might be vulnerable to it

Psychological factors – high in Neuroticism as a personality trait can predispose u in creation of psychological disorder

nurture (stress) -> traumatic experience, a major loss, development of a disease

Question 6

biological influences: gene-environment model

Answer 6

Genetic vulnerabilities increase probability of experiencing stressful life events

Gene-environment correlation model

–

This explains how our genes can also predispose seeking out certain environments / genes can influence our environment that we seek out, in result those environment shape us, environment can trigger those disorders

Those genetic vulnerabilities can acc increase our probability of experiencing life stress

Some genes can predispose u to be more impulsive, be alcoholic or sensation seeking
Ex: genetic vulnerability to develop a phobia to needles and tendency to impulsiveness /

If u have the vulnerability, that increases the likelihood of having that disorder

Question 7

biological influences: epigenetics and the “inheritance” of behaviour

Answer 7

Genes appear to be turned on or off by cellular material located on or around the genome

Stress, nutrition, and other factors affect this epigenome which gets passed down through generations

Environmental manipulations can override these inherited tendencies towards undesirable behaviours or emotional reactions.

Mice Fearing Cherry Blossoms study

Epi means around , things that can impact the genes , on or off

Genes appear to be turned on or off – there’s’ a lot of factors that can affect epigenome , these things can also be inherited (stress, nutrition)

Epigenetics can be an explanation to generational trauma (esp in minority groups)

Cherry blossom study – researchers found that the dna of mice didn’t change but the markers that went with the dna changed (those affecting or influenced the olfactory senses changed in the baby mice ) –

Question 8

Mice Fearing Cherry Blossoms study

Answer 8

see textbook

Question 9

biological influences: neuroscience

Answer 9

central nervous system
- brain and spinal cord

peripheral nervous system
- somatic nervous system (muscles and voluntary movement)

• autonomic nervous system
  (sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system)

Question 10

peripheral nervous system

Answer 10

1) somatic - volunatry, under our contro;

2) autonomic - not under our control, involuntary (heart rate, respiration, organ functioning)

Question 11

peripheral nervous system

1) somatic nervous suystem

2) AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

what is sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system

Answer 11

sympathetic - fight and fly it is what escalates things in our body so u can respond and mobilize u during stress or danger (so can increase heart rate, slows ur digestion, imc respurfation, sends blood to ur muscles and brain, increased adrenal functioning) basicalyy what keeps u alive in danger

parasympathetic - reverse , what calms us down (slows our heart rate, slows ur digestion)

Question 12

central nervous system

Answer 12

Central nervous system

Processes information received from senses and reacts accordingly - main hub in our body, sorts our relevant data

Sorts out relevant data

Brain uses 100 billion neurons

Neurons involved in psychopathology

Question 13

figure 2.6 the transmission of information from one neuron to another

Answer 13

see textbook

Dendrytes

Soma cell body

Just understand how it works when talking abt the neurotransmitters and synpatci cleft

Synaptic cleft – what we are interested in the most in psychology

Question 14

the brain

3 areas

Answer 14

1) hindbrain, made up of the medulla, pons and cerebellum (basic involuntary actions like breathing, heartbeat, motor coordination - which you need these things to be alive)

2) midbrain: sensory input and sleep

3) forebrain: everything above the midbrain, executive functioning such as organization, planing, attention, languange

Question 15

the limbic system

Answer 15

What we are interested to the most (important know them)

Limbic system – involved in emotion regulation and impulse control and basic dcrives of sex, aggression, hunger thirst , plays a biggest role in psychopatholgy,

Thalamus and hypothalamus – overall these regulate emotions and behaviors , hypothalamus is pre important (4fs)

Hypothalamus - Fighting, fleeing, feeding, mating (fight

Hippocampus - memories, all aby memory, that’s why memories are very much tied to emotions such as trauma and trigger, it can trigger emotions important

Amygdala – associated in aggression, sex drive and ____ detection

Question 16

neurotransmitters

neurotransmitters carry messages

3 types:

Answer 16

1) agonist: Mimic and/or increase the effects of a neurotransmitter

2) antagonist: Inhibit and block the effects of a neurotransmitter

3) reuptake inhibitor: Blocks the neurotransmitter from returning to the axon, resulting in more pooling in the synaptic cleft

Question 17

neurotransmitters are broken to two

Answer 17

1) amino acids

2) monoamines

Question 18

amino acids

Answer 18

1) glutamate

Excitatory (turns on neurons resulting in action)

not linked to anxiety, but may be linked to schizophrenia

2) Gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA)

Inhibitory (regulates transmission of information)

Reduces anxiety, anger, aggression, hostility

Too little GABA = anxiety?
- the theory is it is linked to anxiety
- meds on for reducing g anxiety is focused on increasing GABA, it can also have a role in positive emotions as well

Question 19

monoamines

Answer 19

1) Norepinephrine (noradrenaline)

Fight-or-flight response

Too much = anxiety ?

associated with a range of anxiety disorders and depression, plays a general role but it doesn’t directly influence psychopatholgy.

2) Serotonin

Mood, appetite, sleep, memory, and learning

Too little = depression ?

Also linked to anxiety and eating disorder

associated with a range of anxiety disorders and depression, plays a general role but it doesn’t directly influence psychopatholgy.

3) Dopamine

Reward and motor control

Associated with exploratory, outgoing, pleasure-seeking behaviour

Too much = schizophrenia?

reward neurotransmitter, linked to addiction and Parkinson (motor control)

Question 20

psychosocial influences: brain structure and function

common treatment strategy

Answer 20

Common treatment strategy: target either brain or environment

> Ideally, outcome tells us about the accuracy of our theory

> Major problem with this approach

> Effect of treatment does not imply cause **

At minimum, this approach can provide clues about causes but we can’t determine cause and effect just by looking at the outcome

Question 21

therapy and brain activity

how do we treat psychopathology caused by faulty brain circuitry?

Answer 21

surgery? drugs?

can psychological treatment impact circuitry?

** research shows that therapy change brain circuitry and you can develop new pathways.

** neuroplasticity

> Baxter et al. 1992

• Scanned the brains of individuals who had OCD and controls (those with OCD have intrusive thoughts and compulsive behaviours, behaviours, obsessions and compulsions, they hyperfixate with those thoughts, ritualistic things that alleviates anxiety)
• Treated with CBT or Prozac (expose them to what they are scared to the most and prevent them from carrying that compulsion)
• Effects on basal ganglia (research shows that when treatment worked the activity in basal ganglia found that ACTIVITY DECREASED EQUALLY BETWEEN individuals who had drugs or therapy)

Question 22

basal ganglia

Answer 22

Two major dopamine pathways: The mesolimbic system may be implicated in schizophrenia; the path to the basal ganglia contributes to problems in the locomotor system, such as tardive dyskinesia, which can result from the use of neuroleptic drugs.

Basal ganglia is linked to voluntary movements, habits thoughts and emotions , which is associated to obsessive thoughts, compulsive behaviours

Both therapy and drugs had similar effects on the brain

in Baxter’s study. Research shows that when treatment worked the activity in basal ganglia which is connected ti thalamus and brain stem, the yfound that activity decreaed equally between indivduals who ahd durgs or therapy

Question 23

therapy and brain activity

Answer 23

therapy and brain activity

> subsequent research

depression, social anxiety, and specific phobias

effect on neural pathway

– study shows that 2 hrs of intense therapy or exposure therapy chages brain circuitry

Question 24

the placebo effect

IBS study - look at textbook fix this notes

Answer 24

Treating IBS with either no-treatment, sham treatment, or sham + warm therapist

Treating depression with medications or placebo

Overall conclusions
> The exception: pain

– sham treatments were giving patients acupuncture

basically they gave individuals those treatments

Found that having a sham treatment produce better result that having no treatment but havibg a warm therapist even produce better results

Theres tha expectancy

Takeaway from this is Some effectiveness of therapy is likely placebo

In case of pain it seems to produce the same effects in the area

Question 25

psychosocial interactions with brain functioning - fix this notes

Answer 25

Psychosocial factors can directly affect neurotransmitter activity

Rhesus monkeys and benzodiazepine inverse agonist (reverse of GABA)
> Monkeys raised identically except for control over toys/treats

Rats raised as couch potatoes versus stimulating environment

Studies have shown that

Rhesus monkeys - one group were given limited or free access to toys and food and water, they had freedom / other group had the same amount of access but they only received it after the first group had acess to it

Same amount but one had choice and other did not – control vs no control in the environment

They took those monkeys and they administerred a drug – which is basically a reverse of GABA – gaba calms us down so this would likely cause anxiety, cause very short but extreme anxiety

They found that the animals tha tdid not have control had a panic response, those that had control became angry and aggressive

Having the same level of the substance (neurochemical substance) had very diff effects depending on an individual’s psychological history of the monkeys – shows interaction between psychosocial influences (upbringing) and how it interacts with neurotransmitters and how It works on the brain

–

Rats study

Rats had more stimulating environment (playground) had more nerve connection in the brain specifically cerebellum and more dendrites form, shows the nurture aspect

Cerebellum is involved in motor coordination so it makes sense

Question 26

interactions of psychosocial factors and the brain

Answer 26

• In one classic experiment, Insel and colleagues (1988) raised two groups of rhesus monkeys identically except for their ability to control things in their cages. One group had free access to toys and food treats, but the second group got these toys and treats only when the first group did. In other words, the second group had the same number of toys and treats but they could not choose when they got them. Therefore, they had less control over their environment. In psychological experiments, we say the second group was yoked with the first group because their treatment depended entirely on what happened to the first group. Only the monkeys in the first group grew up with a sense of control over things in their lives.
• Later in their lives, all these monkeys were administered a benzodiazepine inverse agonist, a neurochemical that has the opposite effect of the neurotransmitter GABA; the effect is an extreme burst of anxiety. The few times this neurochemical has been administered to people, usually scientists administering it to each other, the recipients have reported the experience—which lasts only a short time—to be one of the most horrible sensations they had ever endured. When this substance was injected into the monkeys (you may debate the ethics of this procedure), the ones that had been raised with little control over their environment ran to a corner of their cage where they crouched and displayed signs of severe anxiety and panic. But the monkeys that had a sense of control behaved quite differently. They did not seem anxious at all. Rather, they seemed angry and aggressive, even attacking other monkeys near them. Thus, the very same level of a neurochemical substance, acting as a neurotransmitter, had very different effects, depending on the psychological histories of the monkeys.
• The Insel and colleagues (1988) experiment is an example of an interaction between neurotransmitters and psychosocial factors. Other experiments suggest that psychosocial influences directly affect the functioning and perhaps even the structure of the central nervous system. Scientists have observed that psychosocial factors routinely change the activity levels of many of our neurotransmitter systems (Barik et al., 2013; Cacioppo et al., 2007; Marinelli & McCutcheon, 2014; Sandi & Haller, 2015). It seems that even the very structure of the nervous system is constantly changing as a result of learning and experience, even into old age, and that some of these changes become permanent (Kolb et al., 2003; Suárez et al., 2009).

Question 27

behavioural influences: conditioning

mowrer’s two-process theory of anxiety

how is fear acquired and maintained?

Answer 27

fears ACQUIRED through classical conditioning (NS becomes CS)

fears MAINTAINED through operant conditining (negative reinforcement, reinforcing escape response)

Other theories can explain phobias (e.g., evolutionary, social learning theory

Doesn’t take cognition into consideration

Question 28

behaviural influences: learning

learned helplessness

Answer 28

When behaviour has no effect on environment, animals give up trying to cope with stress

Learned helplessness in humans

Learned optimism

–
Learned helplessness

Dogs would feel shock on their feet –

When they put a barrier with one side that has no shock, the dogs did not hop over the barrier that has a safer side

The dogs have learned to give up and thought nothing will change

• individuals can also learn this ex: sever mental illness and nothing is improving (a form of dysfunctional belief, they have no control over their environment and nothing will change their feelings)

They hold that belief

People in abusive relationship for example, it would not be helpful by just telling them “just leave”
- people irl we cant just simply tell them, they have to do it for themselves (like how the dogs were shown to go on the other side)

LEARNED OPTIMISM –ppl who are faced with considerable stress and difficulty, they show better psychological functioning if they exhibit an upbeat optimistic attitude

• this can be an overprotective factor, it becomes treicky if its compromising an individual to be
• could be invalidating, you cant just tell them to ”look on the bright side”

Question 29

social influences: social learning

albert bandura’s social cognitive theory

see flashcard

Answer 29

Bobo doll experiment -> social modelling, whatever kids sees they would copy

Social cognitive theory – bandura determined that any individuals behaviour is determined by diff factors (multifaceted) it works and influence one another

He theorizes that these factors determines human behaviour

1) cognitive factors - how u make meaning, attitude, knowledge

2) environmental factors - social norms, access in community

3) behavioural factors - skills, self efficacy

–

Question 30

what are the factors that determines human behaviour, according to albert bandura

Answer 30

1) cognitive factors - knowldege, expectations, attitutdes

2) environmental factors - social norms, access in community, influence on others

3) behavioral factors - skills, practice, self-efficacy

Question 31

evolutionary influences: learning

prepared learning

Answer 31

Biology influences what/how easily we learn - we are biologically wired to develop fears

Through evolution we are highly prepared to learn about certain objects/situations over other object/situations

This knowledge contributed to survival of ancestors - our ancestors needed to be aware of the threats, so now we are more likely to develop fears

More readily learn to fear snakes/spiders than flowers/rocks

Question 32

cognitive influences: cognitive science

Answer 32

We process, store, and act upon information – often without awareness

Implicit memory

Implicit cognition

–

Stroop test – reading is automatic for us so when we start to do list, we have to inhibit the natural tendedncy to read the word, others slow down reading the words related tol their phobia for example

Examines how behavior anfd cognitive influences affect how we process information

Implict memory – when someone acts based on things that have happened in the past but they cannot rememver the event of it (you have no memory of what happened)

Implicit cognition – unobservable unconscious processes

Question 33

emotional influences: emotion

Answer 33

Tendency to behave a certain way, elicited by an event and a feeling state, accompanied by a characteristic physiological response

–

emotions historically were poorly studied

When we are scared, what do feel physiological in our body? Increased heartbeat, sweating

This can be unique to a feeling

1) You behave a certain way
2) Event – how u see the world , feeling state
3) Belief – determines how u respond

Question 34

physiology of fear

the fight, flight, or freeze response

Answer 34

Evolutionarily advantageous (it’s needed)

Fear activates the cardiovascular system (increase your heart rate, perspiration, breathing to help you with that fear response)

Pupils dilate to improve vision
Increase blood/oxygen to brain to think quicker

–

In general fear is what gets us to do something

Fear is very adaptive (typically)

Fight – attack mode
Flight - get out
Freeze -

Question 35

emotional influences: emotional phenomena

difference of emotion, affect and mood

Answer 35

Inconsistencies in terminology used in abnormal psychology

Emotion: Short-lived, temporary states, lasting from few minutes to several hours in response to an event

Affect: Momentary emotional tone that accompanies what we say or do (i.e., outward expression)
- body languange can communicate a lot when in terms of emotions, facial expressions, tone of voice

Mood: Enduring states of affect or emotionality (much more lasting)

Question 36

emotions and psychopathology

emotions can ___ and ___ impact psychopathology

Answer 36

1) emotions can INDIRECTLY impact psychopathology
- suppressing emotional responses increases sympathetic nervous system actively

2) some emotions more DIRECTLY impact psychopathology
- panic (panic attacks are a normal emotion, but wrong time, panic attacks are very characteristic of anxiety disorders)
- basic emotions (fear, anger, sadness) contribute to psychological disorders and may even define them
- ex: when it comes to sadness, it is linked to disorders

3) emotions can affect cogntive processes
- positive mood - positive associations, impressions, and interpretations
- negative or depressed - memories of past events also negative

Question 37

emotional influences: components of emotion

see diagram

Answer 37

1) behaviour:

Emotional behaviour is a means of communication

Basic patterns of behaviour differ in key ways (e.g., freeze, escape, fight

2) cognition: appraisals of environment determine the emotion experienced

3) phyisology: emotions is a brain function involving primitive brain areas

direct connection between these areas and the yes - allow emotion processing to bypass hugher cognitive processes

Question 38

components of emotion

Answer 38

Emotion scientists now agree that emotion comprises three related components, behaviour, physiology, and cognition, but most emotion scientists tend to concentrate on one component or another (see ■ Figure 2.15).

Those who concentrate on behaviour think that basic patterns of emotion differ from one another in fundamental ways; for example, anger may differ from sadness not only in how it feels but also in how it manifests behaviourally and physiologically. These scientists also emphasize that emotion is a way of communicating. One function of fear is to motivate immediate and decisive action, such as running away. But if you look scared, your facial expression will quickly communicate the possibility of danger to your conspecifics, who may not be aware that a threat is imminent. Your facial communication increases their chance for survival because they can now respond more quickly to the threat when it occurs.

Question 39

cultural, social, and interpersonal influences

Answer 39

Culture influences symptoms

Implicit or explicit rules about abnormal behaviour

Depression in West vs. East countries
> Anxiety/Mood disorders less common in China than U.S.
> Differences in how emotions are thought about

1. Emotions can co-occur
2. Emotions Change
3. Emotions arise from context

Question 40

cultural, social, and interpersonal influences

Answer 40

Culture specific disorders (e.g., susto, voodoo death)

Gender roles and expectations
> May contribute to different rates of psychological disorders by gender

• -Women are more likely to have phobias of insects and small animals,
  -2/3 of people with major depression are women
  -Women tend to ruminate more and self-blame more, whereas men have behavioural activation when they are depressed and put themselves out there more> Differences in coping strategies (e.g., rumination vs activation)(Masculine vs feminine traits)

-Masculine traits were active, decisive, never giving up and stands up well
-Feminine traits are warm, tender, gentle, sympathetic and affectionate,
-More masculine traits are associated with less depression, and being high in both masculine and feminine traits was most protective from depression because having more social support
-Low in both masculine and feminine traits was the most depression
-Conformity with typical gender norms promotes distress and promotes depression

(Culture-specific disorders)
- (e.g., susto, voodoo death) happens cause of influence and usually ostracized people with low societal support combined with influence of culture and physiology is what voodoo death is

Question 41

cultural, social, and interpersonal influences

Answer 41

social relationships

> More connections related to less symptoms
Social isolation increases risk of death = smoking/obesity
Perception of loneliness

city livings versus country living

-Having more social relationships means fewer depression symptoms
-Social isolation increases your risk of death and increases obesity and smoking -perception of loneliness: Living in cities = becoming more schizophrenic

> livig in cities is related to likelihood of developing schizophrenia

Question 42

cultural, social, and interpersonal influences

Answer 42

poverty, SES, oppression
> LGTBQ+ populations
> Indigenous cultures

-LGBTQ+ populations and indigenous cultures have more mental health issues, suicide, drug substance use

stigma
> Loss of friends and family
> Loss of employment opportunities
> Loss of assistance from professionals

-People who have mental health issues lose family and friends, employment opportunities, loss of assistance from professionals

Question 43

developmental influences

Answer 43

changes over time
> no disorder is static

must consider all experiences and influences
> early parenting styles
> prenatal experiences

–

-No disorder is static, and they change over time, like for example, addiction of drugs. -Early parenting styles like authoritarian can influence psychopathology
-Prenatal experiences like with alcohol can lead to FASD
-A lower ratio of the ring finger to index finger; is associated with ADHD, autism, alcohol use and psychopathology
-A higher ratio is associated with depression

Question 44

developmental influences

what is equifinality

Answer 44

equifinality

> the same symptoms may be explained by different disorders/ behaviours

> multiple paths can lead to the same disorder/ symptoms

The same symptoms may be explained by different disorders and behaviours; people could have the same symptoms but could be because of other issues
-Multiple paths lead to the same disorder and symptoms

Question 45

what is cognitive neuroscience?

Answer 45

Cognitive neuroscience is the study of the physiological basis of cognition. Taking a levels-of-analysis approach to the study of the mind involves research at both behavioral and physiological levels

Question 46

ramon y cajal’s research

Answer 46

Ramon y Cajal’s research resulted in the abandonment of the neural net theory in favor of the neuron doctrine, which states that individual cells called neurons transmit signals in the nervous system.

Question 47

who recorded the first signals from single neurons

Answer 47

Signals can be recorded from neurons using microelectrodes. Edgar Adrian, who recorded the first signals from single neurons, determined that action potentials remain the same size as they travel down an axon and that increasing stimulus intensity increases the rate of nerve firing.

Question 48

the principle of neural representation states that…

Answer 48

The principle of neural representation states that everything that a person experiences is based not on direct contact with stimuli, but on representations in the person’s nervous system.

Question 49

representation by neurons can be explained by considering feature detectors, neurons that respond to complex stimuli, and how neurons are involved in specificity coding, population coding, and sparse coding.

Question 50

The idea of localization of function in perception is supported by the existence of a separate primary receiving area for each sense, by the effects of brain damage on perception (for example, prosopagnosia), by recording from single neurons, and from the results of brain-imaging experiments.

Question 51

Brain imaging measures brain activation by measuring blood flow in the brain.

Answer 51

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is widely used to determine brain activation during cognitive functioning. Brain-imaging experiments have measured the response to still pictures to identify areas in the human brain that respond best to faces, places, and bodies, and the response to movies to create a brain map indicating the kinds of stimuli that activate different areas of the brain.