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Invertebrates > Insects > Flashcards

Insects Flashcards

1
Q

What defines an insect?

A
  • 6 legs at some point in their life (some exceptions)
  • Body divided into 3 tagma (head, thorax & abdomen)
  • 1 pair of antennae
  • All winged inverts are insects
  • not all insects have wings
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2
Q

Why are insect herbivore - plant interactions important

A
  • Nutrient recycling
  • Crop yield
  • Community structure
  • Biodiversity
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3
Q

First insect fossil

A
  • Palaeodictyoptera
    Found in the carboniferous
  • Modern mayflies and dragon and damselflies resemble
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4
Q

Where did insects come from? Arthropod origin theories?

A

Solution 1: Arthropods have several origins?
Solution 2: Arthropods have a single origin?

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5
Q

Solution 1: Arthropods have several origins?

A
  • Sidnie Manton → similarities in arhtropods were due to constraints imposed by a rigid exoskeleton.
  • Differences in the limb morphology
  • Uniramous / biramous
  • Uniramia hypothesis
  • Convergence of several traits associated with the shift to land
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6
Q

Solution 2: Arthropods have a single origin?

A
  • Group called the ‘Cladists’ - believe that similarities in the arthropods are the best traits to use (Monophyly).
  • Pan crustacea hypothesis
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7
Q

Which gene gave evidence for how arthropods and insects arose?

A
  • Brain and nervous system of arthropods is closer to crustacea than worms
  • Developmental genetics distal-less gene - determines limb branching
  • Insects and crustacea have same gene but is regulated differently
  • Second hypothesis is now widely accepted

Zero marine insects and very few terrestrial crustacea

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8
Q

So what gave rise to insects ?

A

Most likely a crustacean

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9
Q

How insects are adapted for terrestrial life: Transitional habitats

A

bridging habitats

  • Estuary
  • Marsh
  • Intertidal zone
  • Mangroves

All slightly saline

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10
Q

The challenges of terrestrial habitats and how insects overcame them.

A
  • Water loss (probably solved by cuticle) - epicuticle
  • Integument - living structure with production of wax
  • Balance of electrolytes solved with malpighian tubules
  • Respiration - not sure how this evolved - trachea (relatively unique). Spiracles
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11
Q

The insect integument

A

The integument is the outer layer of the insect, comprising the epidermis and the cuticle

  • Chitin based
  • Extensive sclerotization
  • Tough / flexible

Differs from crustacea

  • no calcite
  • more extensive protein x-links
  • waxy epicuticle
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12
Q

What makes the insect integument interesting?

A
  • It is a living structure
  • Wax on outer layer is continuously being refreshed
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13
Q

Aquatic insects

A
  • Aquatic insects have had to come up with workarounds for the trachael system.

E.g. Moquito larvae:

  • The larva lives in water but breathes air through a siphon that penetrates the water surface, or, in some species pierces the roots of aquatic plants such as cattails.
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14
Q

Synampomorphies

A

Shared Traits

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15
Q

How are insects adapted to the increased impact of gravity in terrestrial habitats?

A
  • Have a stable gait - move alternative legs, 2 legs on one side to 1 leg on the other (tripod gate) 3 legs always touching ground
  • Small body size because of this
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16
Q

Challenges to life on land?

A
  • Respiration
  • Water loss
  • Support/movement/gravity
  • Fertilisation
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17
Q

Synapomorphy

A
  • Character shared by all the descendent species
  • Strong evidence for relatedness
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18
Q

Synapomorphies of the Hexapoda (aka what makes an insect)

A
  • Reduction of body segments. Pattern of tagmosiss: 6 segmented head, 3 segmented thorax, 11 segmented abdomen.
  • Reduction in leg segments (fusion of the patella and tibia)
  • Two primary pigment cells of the ommatidia.
  • 9+9+2 pattern of microtubules in sperm flagellum
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19
Q

Apterygota

A

Wingless insects

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20
Q

Pterygota

A

Winged insects

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21
Q

How to group basal insect lineages?

A

Two ways of grouping
1. Arrangements of the mouth parts
2. Or if they have wings or not

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22
Q

Entognatha features

e.g.springtails

Lineages within Apterygota

A
  • Enclosed mouth parts
  • Virtually all have eversible vesicles of some kind (organs than can be turned out of the body
  • Very small
  • Underdeveloped malpighian tubules
  • Reduced or absent compound eyes
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23
Q

Entognatha species

Lineages within Apterygota

A
  • Collembola (springtails),
  • Diplura (bristletails),
  • Protura
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24
Q

Zygentoma

Lineages within Apterygota

A

Silverfish and Firebrats

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25
Q

Protura order

(within Entognatha)

A
  • Simplest insect
  • Antennae lost
  • Eyes absent
  • Elongated body
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26
Q

Oder Diplura

(within Entognatha)

A
  • Simple oceli (no compound eye)
  • Antennae
  • Wingless
  • Two prominent cerci (long tails)
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27
Q

Order collembola (springtails)

(within Entognatha)

A
  • Fuculum (forked abdominal spring tail folded)
  • Compound eye
  • Antennae
  • Wingless
  • Collophore - Electrolyte balance, water uptake, adhering to surfaces etc.
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28
Q

3 innovations that spurred insect diversity

A
  1. Evolution of wings
  2. Evolution of wing folding mechanisms
  3. Holometabolism(metamorphosis)
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29
Q

How did the variety of wings arise?
Two debated origins

Evolution of wings: Pterygota

A

Paranotal hypothesis

  • Wings arose out of thorax (outgrowth)

Pleural hypothesis

  • Gills that gave rise to wings
  • Gene responsible for suppressing wing formations found in crustaceans
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30
Q

How did the variety of wings arise?
Two debated origins

Which is correct?

A
  • Still much debate, possibly a mixture of both?
  • Duel-origin: Wings are derived from selective regulation of HOX genes in tissue from the thorax and the pleural zones
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31
Q

What was the intermediate function of wings? (how/why did they evolve)

A
  • Courtship
  • Thermoregulation - flap to cool
  • Aerodynamics
  • Respiration
  • Possible evolved as a water surface skimming function
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32
Q

what is the indirect form of flight power in insects?

A
  • Most insects dont directly use muscles to power flight
  • Insect pterothorax
  • Flight is powered by contorting thorax using dorso-longitudinal muscles and dorsoventral muscles.
  • This causes the notal hinge to snap open or shut.
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33
Q

Paleoptera:

A
  • Basal lineages,
  • Unable to fold wings back over body
  • No olfactory bulb in the brain
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34
Q

Mayflies

Paleoptera → Ephemeroptera

A
  • 2500 species
  • Aquatic with elaborate gills
  • Greatly reduced hindwings
  • Important prey item as they emerge on mass
  • Emergence attuned to temperature
  • Very threatened by climate change
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35
Q

what are Odonata?

Paleoptera → Ephemeroptera

A

Dragonflies and damselflies

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36
Q

Odonata synapomorphies

A
  • Large compound eyes for predation
  • Internal fertilisation
  • Modified jaws of larvae
  • Rectal gills – dense tracheae system, water drawn in muscularly
  • Caudal gills (external)
  • jet propulsion
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37
Q

Odonata eyes and brain

A
  • No optical nerve insects
  • Ommatidium
  • Different sections of the ommatidium have different pigments
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38
Q

Odonata Copulation

A
  • All male winged insects have a aedeagus - derived from a paired appendages on the 9th segment of the abdomen
  • Scooping out sperm of other males
  • Have secondary genitalia
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39
Q

Neoptera

A
  • Ability to fold wings
  • indirect flight muscles
  • Monophyletic group
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40
Q

Postembryonic development

A
  • Ametabolous - only relevant in apterygota
  • Hemimetabolous
  • Holometabolous
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41
Q

The Egg

Life-cycles and Development

A
  • Eggs differ between species
  • Some lay live young (aphids)
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42
Q

Postembryonic development: Ametabalous

Life-cycles and Development

A
  • Only relevent in apterygota (wingless insects)
  • Series of moults from egg to adult which allow growth
  • Gradual change in body size but body form stays the same
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43
Q

Postembryonic development: Hemimetabolous development

Life-cycles and Development

A
  • Adult form has fully formed wings
  • Distinction between adult and nymph

E.g. crickets / nymphs

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44
Q

Postembryonic development: Holometabolous development

Life-cycles and Development

A
  • Ecology of adults differs largely from larvae
    E.g. Butterflies & Moths
  • Non-feeding stage called a pupa between immature larva and adult
  • Adult structures develop as imaginal discs inside larva
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45
Q

Nomenclature

Life-cycles and Development

A
  • Sets of stages (moults ect) are called instars
  • Different insects have different numbers of instars
  • Penultimate instar subimago
  • Final instar - imago
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46
Q

Instar variation

Life-cycles and Development

A
  • Instar variation - some have 30+ some 5, some 4 etc
  • Some species have fixed number of instar
  • Some species can add an extra instar if they haven’t got enough nutrients
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47
Q

Groups within Hemimetabola

Hemimetabola. Basal neoptera (basal winged insects)

A
  • Stoneflys (Plecoptera)
  • Stick insects (Phasmatodea)
  • Grasshoppers & Crickets (Orthoptera)
  • Mantises (Mantodea)
  • Cockroaches (Blattodea)
  • Termites (Isoptera)???
  • Thrips (Thysanoptera)
  • True bugs (Hemiptera)
  • Aphids, white flys.. (Sternorrhyncha)
  • Cicadas.. (Auchenorrhyncha)
48
Q

Stoneflys (Plecoptera)

Hemimetabola. Basal neoptera (basal winged insects)

A
  • Reduced ovipositor
  • Accessory heart (pulsatile organ) associated with cerci
  • 3-segmented tarsi
  • High O2 requirement
  • Adapted for aquatic life
49
Q

Stick insects (Phasmatodea)

Hemimetabola. Basal neoptera (basal winged insects)

A
  • All herbivores
  • Example of crypsis (mimic sticks - appearance and behaviour)
  • Claspers present in males
50
Q

Grasshoppers and crickets (Orthoptera)

Hemimetabola. Basal neoptera (basal winged insects)

A
  • Cryptopleuron (lateral extension of the pronotum)
  • Saltorial hindlegs (jumping)
  • Wings inclined over abdomen at rest (folding wing mechanism)
51
Q

Mantises (Mantodea)

Hemimetabola. Basal neoptera (basal winged insects)

A
  • Enlarges raptorial forelegs
  • Femoral brush on front leg
  • Extraordinary head mobility
  • Ootheca (egg mass) embedded in protective froth

Common features

  • Camouflage and mimicry
  • Cyclopean metasternal ear
52
Q

Cockroaches (blattodea)

Hemimetabola. Basal neoptera (basal winged insects)

A
  • Wrap around eyes
  • Dorsoventral flattened
  • Slightly hardened, leathery (coreacious) front wings

Maternal and biparental care

  • Adults protect nymphs
  • Extended maternal care
  • Retention of the ootheca (egg sac) (may be first step towards parental care)
53
Q

Termites (Isoptera) < no longer an order - Evolved from cockroaches.

Hemimetabola. Basal neoptera (basal winged insects)

A
  • Evolved eusociality (different roles in colonies)
  • No specific synapomorphies for termites

Termite mounds - thermoregulation

  • Chimneys and tubes which drag air up from the colony - improves air flow
  • Evenly distributed as as they compete for resources (evenly distributed colonies)
  • Increase nitrogen levels around mounds- linked with even distribution of plant growth
54
Q

Thrips (Thysanoptera)

Hemimetabola. Basal neoptera (basal winged insects)

A
  • Frilled wings (setae)
  • Right mandible reduced - left mandible inflexible
  • Pre-adult instar -
  • Haplodiploid (males from unfertilised eggs)
54
Q

Hemiptera (True bugs): Synapomorphies

Hemimetabola. Basal neoptera (basal winged insects)

A
  • Mouth parts fused to form piercing, sucking beak or rostrum
  • Herbivorous
  • Major plant pests
  • Disease vectors
  • Viviparity and parthenogenesis in some groups
54
Q

Hemiptera - Plant juice issues

Hemimetabola. Basal neoptera (basal winged insects)

A
  • Phloem sap - contains very little nitrogen - positive pressure
  • Xylem fluid - negative pressure - leaf transpiration - low nutrient
  • Negative pressure - difficult to get out - insects have to actively work against pressure
  • Formation of beak - large muscles in head
55
Q

Sternorrhyncha: psyllids, aphids, whiteflies, scale insects

Hemimetabola. Basal neoptera (basal winged insects). HEMIPTERA

A
  • Fine, hairlike stylets
  • Parthenogenetic viviparity
  • Reduced or lost ovipositor (birth live young)
  • Phloem feeding + honey dew secretion
56
Q

Auchenorrhyncha: Cicadas, cercopids, membracids, fulgoroids

Hemimetabola. Basal neoptera (basal winged insects). HEMIPTERA

A
  • Elaborate acoustic organs on legs
  • Enlarged clypeus (forehead)
  • Cibarial pump
  • Xylem feeding
57
Q

Eusociality

A

Depends on high levels of altruism within groups as individuals increase the fitness of others at a cost to themselves (e.g., by helping care for young).

58
Q

Heteroptera: Shield bugs

Hemimetabola. Basal neoptera (basal winged insects). HEMIPTERA

A
  • Beak attached to front of head
  • Hemelytrous forewings
  • Leathery wings
  • Flat folded wings, overlap abdomen
  • Scent glands on nymphs (anti-predator)
  • Some are predators
59
Q

The 4 big insect orders

Holometabola

A
  • Coleoptera
  • Lepidoptera
  • Hymenoptera
  • Diptera
60
Q

Coleoptera (Beetles)

Holometabola

A
  • Very diverse
  • 40% of all insects
  • Broken up into 4 suborders
  • 166 families
  • 400-420,000 species
  • Diversity in morphology, ecology and behaviour
61
Q

Coleoptera: Synapomorphies

A
  • Hardened front wings - elytra
  • Large hind wings with specialised venation for tucking and for power flight (allows them to have very large hind wings)
  • Reduced thorax
  • Retracted genitalia

Beetles are all very similar in overall appearance - few deviations

62
Q

Coleoptera: Elytra

A
  • Access to hard habitats and spaces - burrow into wood, leaf etc
  • Wing protection
  • Infection and predation protection
  • Homeostasis (desiccation, cold)

Key morphological adaptation that allowed massive radiation

63
Q

Coleoptera: Beetle Ecology Variety

A
  • Most are herbivorous (roots, stems, leaves)
  • Fungivorous
  • Predaceous
  • Peculiar diets (e.g. pure cellulose/lignin; dried grain)
  • Parasitic – very uncommon
  • Repeated evolution of aquatic adaptations (plastrom - air bubble, used as gill)
64
Q

Coleoptera sub-orders

A
  • Adephaga
  • Polyphaga
  • Archostemata
  • Myxophaga
65
Q

Adephaga

Coleoptera sub-order

A
  • Mostly predacious
  • Diving beetles are mostly predatory
  • Dominated by carabidae (ground beetles) and aquatic (diving beetles)

E.g. Bombardier beetles → spray out anti-predator chemical weapon

66
Q

Polyphaga

Coleoptera sub-order

A
  • Herbivorous
  • Form bulk of the coleoptera
  • E.g. dung beetles, stag beetles
67
Q

Insect sensory perception (4 types)

A
  • Chemoreception
  • Mechanoreception (tactile)
  • Thermal and hygroreception (heat)
  • Visual reception
68
Q

Chemoreceptoin (2 kinds)

A
  • Olfactory - gas phase
  • Contact - liquid phase (contact based)

Sensillae - detect the signals (found on antennae, mouthparts, legs

69
Q

Sensillae

Insect sensory perception

A
  • Punctured with pores that allow gas to flow in.
  • In most insects the part of the brain associated with chemical signals is the largest part of the brain
  • Variable sensitivity
70
Q

Chemoreception olfaction

Insect sensory perception

A

Important for long distance communication & detection of mates, resources, predator warning

Semiochemicals (information chemicals)

  • Pheromones (within-species communication)
  • Allelochemical (between species communication)
71
Q

Pheromones

A

Within-species communication

72
Q

Allelochemical

A

Between species communication

73
Q

Striped ambrosia beetle and other beetle that inhabit the same tree

Chemoreception

A

Detects other beetles pheromones that colonises the same tree to find a tree for themselves.

74
Q

Mechanoreception (tactile)

A
  • Perception of any mechanical distortion of the body
  • Allows insect to orientate themself
  • Touch, vibration, strain, stress
  • Huge range of sensitivity trichoid sensillum
75
Q

Trichoid Sensillum

Mechanoreception

A
  • Hairs on insect are attatched to peg below surface.
  • When hairs touch something the peg is stimulated and caused the scolopale to activate attached nerve cells
  • Nerve then sends signal
76
Q

Visual systems

Insect sensory systems

A
  • Ocelli - simplified eyes - generally one lens - multiple rhabdomes - allows response to changes in day length
  • Stemmata - found in larval insects - provide basic orientation - very simple eye
  • Compound eye
77
Q

Thermo and hydro-reception

A
  • Heat and water detection
  • Water balance and temperature
  • Very little know about these receptors
78
Q

Lepidoptera synapomorphies

A
  • Glossa - long mouth part
  • Wing setae modified to form scales (modified hairs)
  • Median ocellus lost
  • Vom Rath’s organ - sensory organ
  • Fore tibial brush
79
Q

Lepidoptera: Glossa / Proboscis

A
  • Proboscis uncoiling is operated by a pump system
  • Actively pumps hemolymph into the proboscis to extend it.
  • Powerful cibarial head pump (can suck up half it’s body weight in a single feeding even)
80
Q

Lepidoptera: Variation in the proboscis

A
  • Some variation in the proboscis
  • Some used for other things - some use hook tip to suck out juices of cells
81
Q

Caterpillar legs

A
  • Six true legs
  • Prolegs at the back used to hold onto plants (not true legs)
82
Q

Silk moth domestication

A
  • First domesticated insect
  • Can’t survive in the wild anymore
  • Destructive practice → larvae killed
  • First sex pheromone synthesis
83
Q

Largest suborder of lepidoptera ?

A

Glossata (125 families)

84
Q

Glossata synapomorphies

A
  • Double layer of wing scales
  • Frenate wing coupling (frenulum)
  • Frenulum - spur more secure than other types of wing couplings
85
Q

Moth and butterflies in conservation

A
  • Highly reliant on nectar because of glossop
  • Highly threatened by climate change
  • Declines in moth species richness with increased greyspace (urbanisation)
  • Declines in bees and hoverflies too - moths showed largest decline
86
Q

Hymenoptera

A

Bees, wasps & ants

Wasps are most prolific

87
Q

Evolution within the Hymenoptera

A

Repeated evolution of:

  • Parasitism
  • Nectar feeding
  • Eusociality
88
Q

Hymenoptera Synapomorphies

A
  • Unique labio-maxillary complex (sucking tongue/glossa)
  • Apical, tibial spur (antennal cleaning). Wasps.
  • Hamuli (wing coupling mechanism) locking system allows them to be good flyers
  • Haplodiploid (haploid males from unfertilised eggs, diploid females (fertilised)
89
Q

Hymenoptera feeding habits

A
  • Can feed on a variety of things
  • Chewing mandibles are common
  • Also sucking tongue
90
Q

Symphyta

Major Hymenoptera groups

A
  • Basal group
  • Herbivorous caterpillar like larvae
  • Sawfly and Woodwasps
91
Q

Apocrita

Major Hymenoptera groups

A
  • Evolution of the wasp waist
  • Apodous larvae - legless larvae
92
Q

Chalcidoidea - tiny group within Apocrita

Major hymenoptera groups

A
  • Small to minute size (~1-2mm)
  • Parasitoids and hyperparasitoids of other insects
  • Phytophagous in galls
  • Fig wasps (Agaoninae) are herbivores
  • Hairs on wings no veins
93
Q

Ichneumonoidea: group within Apocrita

Major hymenoptera groups

A
  1. Parasitoids of other insects
  2. Notable, often extreme ovipositors
  3. Important natural enemies of herbivorous insects (biocontrol)
94
Q

Ectoparasitoid

A

Feeds externally on host, host is paralyzed.

95
Q

Endoparasitoid

A

Feeds internally on host, via oviposition

96
Q

Primary parasitoid

A

Parasitizes the primary host

97
Q

Hyperparasitoid

A

Parasitizes a primary parasitoid

98
Q

Vespoidea

Major groups in the Hymenoptera

A

Wasps and ants

99
Q

Formicidae (ants)

within Vespoidea

A
  • Numerous independent origins of eusociality
  • Predacious and herbivorous
  • Large colonies
  • Farm fungus - Parallels between human agriculture
100
Q

Apoidea (bees and apoid wasps)

A
  • Veggie wasps
  • Evolved to use pollen and nectar as food
  • Scopa - for pollen carrying (hairs that allow sticky adhesion)

Corbiculates

  • Have a pollen basket (corbicula)
  • All bees that store honey (edible to humans)
101
Q

The significance of honey bees

A
  • Livestock - highly domesticated
  • Perception of honeybees as ‘wild’
  • Outcompete wild species of bees
  • Disease spreaders
102
Q

Largest family of bees

A

Apidae (e.g. bumble bees)

  • Most bee species are solitary
  • Few parasitic
  • Few eusocial
103
Q

Bee lifecycle (solo)

A
  • Excavates a chamber
  • Collects pollen (pollen ball)
  • Lays egg on pollen ball
  • Larva hatch and feed on pollen ball
  • Turns into pupa
  • Emerges when an adult
104
Q

Cuckoo bees lifecycle

A
  • Finds an already dug and prepared nest (of another bee)
  • Lays egg on the pollen ball
  • First instar larval stage can have hook-like mouthparts to kill other larva
105
Q

Primitive eusocial

A
  • Not as much dimorphism
  • Only size differs between queen and workers
  • Decisions made by one individual
106
Q

Advanced eusociality

A
  • Morphologically distinct worker and queen
  • Swarming: group decisions
107
Q

Evolution of Eusociality

A
  • Termites have very ancient eusociality (triassic)
  • Ants then wasps evolved it after
  • Bees are the most recent to evolve eusociality
108
Q

Diptera

A

The flies

109
Q

Diptera Synapomorphies

A
  • Loss of hind wings
  • hind wings formed into Halteres
  • Extreme reduction of the prothorax
110
Q

Diptera minor synapomorphies

A
  • Apical segment of labial palpus modified to labellum - specialised mouthparts
  • Kinked wings
  • Apodous larvae - legless larvae
  • Reduced abdominal spiracle in adult males
111
Q

Diptera: Major groups

A
  • Nematocera: Basal long-horned flies. (e.g. crane flies)
  • Brachycera: Short-horned flies (e.g. houseflies)
  • Clyclorapha: Hoverflies
112
Q

Origins and evolution within Diptera

A

Many different origins of feeding habits

  • 12 blood feeding origins
  • 17 endoparasitism
  • 10 ectoparasitism
  • 18 flightlessness
  • 26 plant feeding

Very diverse in both basal and derived lineages

FLIES ARE VERY DIVERSE

113
Q
A

Invertebrates (13 decks)

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