Influence of culture and media Flashcards
Define socialisation
The way in which social norms are transmitted and communicated.
Define culture
The ideas, behaviours, attitudes, and traditions that exist within a large group of people that are passed down from one generation to the next and are often resistant to change. (Models, reinforcement, SLT)
Define media
Tools used to store, distribute and communicate information which may convey expectations around gender roles and gender-appropriate behaviours.
Describe Margaret Mead’s (1935) research as evidence for cross-cultural differences in gender roles
Margaret Mead (1935) carried out a detailed cross-cultural ethnographic study by living with 3 cultural groups in the Sepik region of Papua New Guinea for 2 years.
Mead found that both Arapesh men and woman were feminine. They were both very expressive, gentle, caring and co-operative. Both the male and female took to bed when the female was pregnant as they were both said to ‘grow a child’.
The Mundugumor (both sexes) were masculine and demonstrated assertive, arrogant, and hostile behaviour. Men did not want children and became annoyed when their wives got pregnant. As a result, maternal rejection was common, and the babies did not experience love.
Tchambuli gender roles were seen as reversed compared to Western / industrialised society. The females were dominant and independent, and took care of trade arrangements, whereas the men were seen to be emotionally dependent on their wives and incapable of making decisions.
Describe Buss’ (1989) study as evidence for cultural similarities in gender roles
Buss (1989) found several consistent patterns in mate preferences across 37 cultures from 33 countries that he described as ‘evolved psychological mechanisms’ which are processes that solved a specific problem relating to survival or reproduction recurrently throughout human evolutionary history.
Females value the financial capacity of potential mates, as well as ambition and industriousness (cues to resource acquisition). It was found that females in all 37 cultures preferred somewhat older mates too. Males however value physical attractiveness and relative youth (cues to high reproductive capacity).
Outline the role the media plays in shaping gender roles.
How can this reinforce rigid stereotypes?
Media portrays role models with whom children may identify with and imitate.
Through oversimplifying and generalising representations of groups it can perpetuate biases and influence public opinion which can reinforce widespread stereotypes about gender roles.
Name the studies that show:
- Cross-cultural differences in gender roles
-Cross-cultural similarities in gender roles
- Influence of media stereotypes
- Margaret Mead (1935)
- Buss (1989)
- Furnham and Farragher (2000)
Describe Furnham and Farragher’s (2000) study as evidence for the reinforcement of sex stereotypes in the media
Furnham and Farragher (2000) investigated the use of sex-role stereotypes in British and New Zealand television ads.
In both New Zealand and British commercials, males were more likely to be shown in autonomous roles, whereas females were more likely to be seen in familial roles within domestic settings.
British data revealed that female central figures were more likely to be depicted advertising inexpensive products.
In both countries the sex-role stereotyping in voice-over material was stronger than visual material. Males dominate the voice-over modality with 69% of British voice-overs and 81% of New Zealand voice-overs being provided by men. Many advertisers still believe the male voice is more authoritative, convincing and knowledgeable.
What is self-efficacy and how does the media influence self-efficacy in relation to gender role development
One’s confidence in their ability to carry out a specific behaviour.
Media provides information about the likely outcomes of behaviour for men and women, thus seeing other people in the media perform gender-appropriate behaviours increases a child’s belief that they can carry out such behaviour in the future. Similarly, the failure of others that we identify with decreases a person’s faith in their ability to master similar skills or tasks.
1 Strength of cultural influences on gender
Supporting evidence:
The influence of culture on changing gender roles is supported by evidence. Hofstede (2001) argues that in industrialised cultures the changing status and expectations of women are a function of their increasingly active role in the workplace and the shift away from the domestic sphere. This has led to a breakdown of traditional stereotypes in advanced industrialised societies. In traditional societies women still occupy the role of housemaker and primary caregiver as a result of social, cultural and religious pressures.
The gendered division of labour varies between cultures highlights the influence of culture on gender roles and that this concept is not culturally universal, which ultimately suggests that gender roles are very much determined by cultural context.
2 Limitations of cultural influences on gender
Imposed etic:
Cross-cultural research is typically undertaken by those from Western / industrialised societies. This can lead researchers, armed with theories and methods that have been developed in the West, to impose their own cultural interests and understanding upon the people they are studying. In short, the methods developed in one culture are used to assess behaviour in another.
Berry et al. (2002) suggests that early anthropological research was “extractive rather than collaborative and that the instruments used were likely to be biased, both procedurally and conceptually. Such imposed etics can therefore make methods and findings meaningless.
Thus, suggested that at least one member of the local population should be included within the research team as a way of guarding against this possibility of carrying out research which is assumed to be universal and actually may be meaningless when transferred to other cultures.
Criticisms of Mead’s research questions her validity as a researcher:
Derek Freeman published two books and numerous papers extensively criticising Mead’s early research into the life of Samoan women and girls.
Freeman raised concerns over apparent anomalies in Mead’s research and claimed she did not place enough. Freeman, who worked with native Samoans in his own anthropological research, asserted that Mead had created a false picture of their behaviour.
This suggests that Mead’s research and interpretations may suffer from subjectivity, and therefore demonstrate her researcher / observer bias and ethnocentrism.
2 Strengths of media influences on gender
Role played by counter stereotype models:
The media acts as a key socialising agent for gender role development and evidence suggests that it can play a positive role in challenging traditional gender stereotypes.
Disney’s narrative has both upheld and challenged conventional gender stereotypes. The heroines’ traditional romantic arcs have shifted to instead focus on self-discovery, leadership and challenging the traditional notions of masculinity and femininity. Films like Mulan (1998) and Brave (2012) feature female protagonists with traditionally masculine roles; both of which are skilled fighters and capable leaders. Frozen (2013) and Moana (2016) have been praised for feminist themes and transcending the confines of traditional female roles, displaying resilient and strong female characters.
Moreover, Pingree (1978) found that gender stereotyping was reduced amongst school-aged girls when they were shown TV adverts featuring women in non-stereotypical roles. She found that girls were more appreciative and accepting of media which presents other females in non-traditional roles.
Research support:
A town in Canada provided researchers with the unique opportunity to examine the relationship. The town, which was code-named Notel, could not get TV because it was situated in a remote valley. Williams (1985) carried out a longitudinal, naturalistic study on this town and a town with a single TV channel (Unitel), and one with four broadcast channels and cable (Multitel). They studied the towns twice: once before TV came to Notel (Phase 1), and again after it had had TV for two years (Phase 2). Williams measured a series of outcomes, including children’s sex stereotypes, and found that children’s views and behaviours became significantly more sex-stereotyped post TV introduction. Such evidence enhances the explanatory power of the influence media has on gender role development.
1 Limitation of media influences on gender
Correlation not causation:
It is argued that the relationship between gender roles and the media may not be causal. The fact that those who spend a lot of time on social media, TV and video games hold stronger gender-stereotyped beliefs is merely correlational evidence, not necessarily indicating media to be the cause of such attitudes. It could be that those with pre-existing gender stereotypes simply watch television a lot more to confirm their own innate stereotypes.
Durkin (1985) norms within the child’s family may be the bigger determinant on the child’s gender attitudes and behaviour. If media representations confirm existing gender norms held by the family, then these are likely to be reinforced in the child’s mind. If not, then such representations are likely to be rejected. This suggests that media influences are secondary to other influences, such as family.
Moreover, the influence of media on gender development may be exaggerated as significant gender development occurs before the age of four when media influences are weaker. It may therefore be that media influences reinforce existing gender beliefs and norms, rather than create them. This means we cannot assume that the media is responsible for causing gender roles.
