Atypical gender development Flashcards
What is gender dysphoria?
Psychological distress that results from an incongruence between one’s sex assigned at birth and one’s gender identity.
What is the brain-sex theory?
The theory assumes that male and female brains are different, and therefore the brain of a transgender individual does not match their biological sex.
What is the BSTc and its role in the brain-sex theory?
The BSTc is a sexually dimorphic structure in the thalamus responsible for emotional responses, larger in heterosexual men than in heterosexual women.
The size of the BSTc correlates with preferred sex rather than biological sex.
What are the 2 biological explanations for gender dysphoria
- Brain-sex theory
- Genetic factors
Outline the results of the two studies that support brain-sex theory
Zhou et al. (1995) and Kruijver et al. (2000)
They found that the number of neurons in the BSTc of trans women was similar to that of females, and vice versa for trans men.
Outline the the study which supports genetic influence on gender dysphoria?
Heylens et al. (2012) found 39% of MZ twins were concordant for gender dysphoria, compared to none of the DZ twins.
What is the social construction perspective on gender dysphoria?
This perspective argues that gender identity is ‘invented’ by societies and that gender dysphoria is a social phenomenon which arises when people are forced to choose to be either a man or a woman.
Outline evidence for social constructionism?
McClintock (2015)
She cited individuals in New Guinea with 5-alpha reductase deficiency which was routinely accepted among this culture that some people are males, some are female and some are ‘females-then-males’.
5-alpha reductase deficiency is when males are born with external genitals that appear female but at puberty, because of increases in testosterone, the testes descend and they develop male genitalia.
Outline the 2 studies which show evidence fir psychoanalytic theory for atypical gender development.
Stoller (1973)
Used clinical interviews and found that males with gender dysphoria had overly close relationships with their mothers, leading to greater female identification.
Zucker (2004) found that females with gender dysphoria often experienced paternal rejection in early childhood and unconsciously think if they become males, they might gain acceptance from their father.
What are 2 social explanations for gender dysphoria?
- Social constructionism
- Psychoanalytical theory - mother-son and father-daughter relationships
2 Strengths for social explanations for atypical gender development.
Research support for mother-son relationship:
The psychoanalytic theory proposed by Ovesey and Person argues that gender dysphoria in males is caused by extreme separation anxiety before gender identity has been established. The child fantasies of a symbiotic fusion with the mother to relieve anxiety and thus adopts a female gender identity.
Zucker et al. (1996) assessed the presence of traits of separation anxiety disorder in boys referred clinically for gender dysphoria. They found that 64% of boys with gender dysphoria also displayed diagnostic traits of separation anxiety. This suggests that some kind of disordered attachment to a mother is a factor in gender dysphoria.
Cultural support for a third gender:
The social constructionism approach is the idea that gender identity is ‘invented’ by societies and such a notion is supported by many non-Western cultures who challenge the traditional binary classifications of male and female.
Third gender is a concept in which individuals are categorised, either by themselves or by society, as neither a man nor a woman. It is also a social category present in societies that recognise three or more genders. The hijras of South Asia are one of the most recognised groups of third gender people. Hijras have legal recognition in India, Bangladesh and Pakistan.
Further, the fact that increasing numbers of people now describe themselves as non-binary suggests that cultural understanding is only now beginning to ‘catch up’ with the lived experience of many. This suggests that gender identity (and dysphoria) is best seen as a social construction rather than a biological fact.
1 Limitation of social explanations for atypical gender development.
Inadequate explanations:
Ovesey and Person’s explanation does not provide an adequate account of gender dysphoria in biological females as the theory only applies to transgender women.
Also, research by Rekers (1986) found that gender dysphoria in those assigned male at birth is more likely to be associated with the absence of the father than the fear of separation from the mother. In other words, gender dysphoria in biological males is more motivated by the lack of a father during the critical period for attachment formation, as opposed to an absent mother.
1 Strength of biological explanations of atypical gender development
Other structural differences:
Additional evidence suggests there may be other brain / neurological differences associated with gender dysphoria. White matter (the deeper tissues of the brain) is another sexually dimorphic aspect of the brain. There are regional differences in the proportion of white matter in male and female brains.
Rametti et al. (2011) analysed the brains of both male and female transgender individuals, crucially before they began hormone treatment as part of gender reassignment. In most cases, the amount and distribution of white matter corresponded more closely to the gender the individuals identified themselves as being rather than their biological sex.
2 Limitations of biological explanations of atypical gender development
Unreliable methods:
In the studies by Kruijver et al. and Zhou et al. the BSTc was examined post-mortem and after transgender individuals had received hormone treatment during gender reassignment treatment. This suggests that differences in the BST may have been an effect of hormone therapy, rather than the cause of gender dysphoria. Therefore, it might explain why their brain sex was more similar to their gender identity rather than their biological sex.
Socially sensitive research:
Research on gender dysphoria has potential social consequences for individuals represented by the research.
Classifying gender dysphoria as a medical category is intended to help people access healthcare and treatment. However, others may object to the label of mental disorder being applied to gender dysphoria. Such diagnostic terms can have a stigmatising effect as classifying trans people as being ‘ill’ or ‘sick’ may lead to prejudice and discrimination.
