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biology paper 1 > infection and response > Flashcards

infection and response Flashcards

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1
Q

what is a communicable disease?

A

any disease that is infectious

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2
Q

what are communicable diseases caused by?

A
  • viruses
  • bacteria
  • protists
  • fungi
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3
Q

what is a pathogen?

A

any virus, bacteria, protist or fungus that causes an infectious disease. they are all microorganisms

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4
Q

do all microorganisms cause infectious diseases?

A

no, many are not pathogens. some bacteria are useful for making cheese or yogurt. we can eat fungi, eg mushrooms and quorn

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5
Q

how are pathogenic microorganisms spread?

A
  • direct contact
  • water
  • air
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6
Q

what do pathogenic bacteria do?

A

their cells reproduce rapidly inside the body, producing toxins that damage tissues and make us feel ill

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7
Q

what is salmonella?

A

a type of food poisoning caused by bacteria ingested in / on food (usually chicken or egg) that has been prepared in unhygienic conditions.

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8
Q

what are the symptoms of salmonella?

A
  • fever
  • abdominal cramps
  • vomiting
  • diarrhoea
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9
Q

how are we safe from salmonella?

A

in the UK, poultry are vacinated against salmonella to control the spread of bacteria. people should take care while preparing chicken.

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10
Q

what is gonorrhoea?

A

a sexually transmitted disease (STD) caused by bacteria. it is spread by contact with an infected person.

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11
Q

what can we use to treat gonorrhoea?

A

the antibiotic penicillin worked well to treat gonorrhoea until resistant strains of bacteria evolved. scientists are researching to develop new treatments.

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12
Q

what are the symptoms of gonorrhoea?

A
  • thick yellow or green discharge from the
    penis or vagina
  • pain when urinating
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13
Q

how can we prevent gonorrhoea spreading?

A

antibiotics will kill the bacteria, but the infected person needs to use a barrier method of contraception e.g. condoms

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14
Q

what do pathogenic viruses do?

A

they reproduce rapidly inside cells, causing cell damage when theyre released

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15
Q

what is measles?

A

a viral disease that is serious and can cause death if the infected person suffers from complications. it is spread by inhaling droplets from sneezes and coughs

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16
Q

what are the symptoms of measles?

A
  • red skin rash
  • fever
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17
Q

how can we prevent measles spreading?

A

most young children are vaccinated against measles

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18
Q

what is HIV?

A

a viral disease that attacks the bodys immune cells (white blood cells). it is spread by sexual contact or exchange of bodily fluids such as blood (eg. when drug users share needles)

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19
Q

what are the first symptoms of HIV?

A

a flu-like illness is the first symptom. if successfully controlled, the virus doesnt attack the bodys immune cells

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20
Q

what is the last stage of HIV (AIDS)?

A

in the last stage of HIV, the immune system becomes seriously damaged and the infected person gets ill from any other infections eg. colds or flu, and sometimes cancers

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21
Q

how can we treat HIV?

A

medicines called antiretroviral drugs can successfully control the virus and prevent some damage to the the immune system. this can stop HIV becoming AIDS

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22
Q

what is tobacco mosaic virus (TMV)?

A

a virus that infects and damages many plant species including tomato

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23
Q

what are the symptoms of TMV?

A
  • a mosaic coloured pattern appears on the
    leaves
  • the pattern ranges from paler green, to
    yellow or brown
  • it affects plant growth as less
    photosynthesis occurs, so less glucose is
    made - cells have less energy
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24
Q

what is rose black spot?

A

a fungal disease of rose plants. it is spread in the environment by wind or water (rain drops splashing)

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25
Q

what are the symptoms of rose black spot?

A
  • purple or black spots appear on leaves
  • leaves often turn yellow and fall off the
    plant
  • affects the plant growth as there are fewer
    leaves to photosynthesise
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26
Q

how can rose black spot be treated?

A
  • fungicide sprays can be used
  • removing and destroying affected leaves
    helps prevent the spread of the fungus to
    other leaves and plants
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27
Q

what is malaria?

A

a disease caused by a protist. the protist is spread by biting mosquitos as the protist is a parasite that lives in the mosquito for part of its life cycle.

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28
Q

what are the symptoms of malaria?

A

a fever and flu-like symptoms that recur every few days. the most common malaria infections cause fever every 3 or 4 days and can be fatal

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29
Q

what is a vector species?

A

a vector is a species that carries a microorganism from one infected individual to another. in malaria, the mosquito is the vector

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30
Q

how can we prevent the spread of malaria?

A

preventing the vector from spreading the protist, using mosquito nets to avoid being bitten. preventing the mosquitos from breeding keeps the vector numbers low

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31
Q

what are non-specific defence systems?

A

defences that the body has against all types of pathogens. these include skin, nose, trachea, bronchi, and stomach

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32
Q

how does the skin prevent pathogens entering?

A

the skin is a waterproof layer that prevents most pathogens from entering the body. if the skin is damaged, the wound is sealed quickly by forming a scab.

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33
Q

how does the nose prevent pathogens from entering?

A

the nose has hairs and mucus to trap airborne pathogenic microorganisms and stop them from getting further into the body.

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34
Q

how does the trachea/ bronchi prevent pathogens from entering?

A

they have sticky mucus to trap airborne pathogens, and also the cells lining these airways have cilia that waft the mucus up to the throat to be swallowed.

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35
Q

how does the stomach prevent pathogens from entering?

A

contains hydrochloric acid (pH 2) which destroys most pathogens that are ingested in food.

36
Q

what is our specific defence system?

A

the immune system tries to destroy any pathogens that enter the body. various types of white blood cells are involved

37
Q

what exactly do white blood cells do?

A

they carry out phagocytosis, as well as producing antibodies and antitoxins

38
Q

what is phagocytosis?

A

when a white blood cell engulfs a bacteria and then destroys it by digesting it using enzymes

39
Q

what are antitoxins?

A

chemicals produced by white blood cells that neutralise the toxins produced by bacteria. the toxins are one of the reasons why we feel ill.

40
Q

what are antibodies?

A

specific shaped molecules that can bind onto a particular pathogen so that it can be destroyed.

41
Q

how can we become immune to an infectious disease?

A

the first time a white blood cell meets a pathogen, it takes time to make antibodies to destroy it. the next time that pathogen enters, antibodies can be made fast so we dont get ill.

42
Q

what is a vaccine?

A

a small quantity of a dead or inactive form of a pathogen that can be put into an individual so that they can develop immunity to the pathogen

43
Q

how do vaccinations work?

A

when a white blood cell meets the dead/inactive pathogen it reacts as if it is harmful, and produces antibodies. these antibodies can then be made quickly in the future.

44
Q

what was the first vaccine?

A

edward jenner developed the smallpox vaccine when he noticed that milkmaids who had the mild infection of cowpox never got the dangerous smallpox infection.

45
Q

how successful are vaccines?

A

very successful as long as enough people are vaccinated. smallpox has been completely eradicated due to vaccination. the last death from smallpox was in 1978.

46
Q

what are antibiotics?

A

drugs developed to destroy infectious bacteria inside the body. the first antibiotic discovered was penicillin in the 1940s.

47
Q

do antibiotics work on all pathogens?

A

antibiotics only kill bacteria. they cant kill viral pathogens because the virus is inside body cells where the antibiotics cant reach.

48
Q

is there more than 1 type of antibiotic?

A

there are many types. it is important that specific types of bacteria are treated with specific antibiotics.

49
Q

do antibiotics work well?

A

no, lots of antibiotics have become less useful as bacteria have evolved resistant strains. the antibiotics dont work on resistant bacteria

50
Q

what sort of drugs can destroy viral pathogens?

A

antiviral drugs can destroy viral pathogens, but it is difficult to kill a virus without damaging body tissues and this makes them very expensive to develop

51
Q

what do painkillers do?

A

painkillers just stop an individual from feeling pain. they dont destroy any pathogens, they just make us feel a bit better by removing some of the symptoms

52
Q

what about other medicines?

A

ibuprofen reduces inflammation, and cough mixtures just soothe, often by reducing friction in our throat or chest. they remove symptoms but dont destroy pathogens.

53
Q

how are new drugs developed?

A

scientists in the pharmaceutical industry synthesise (make) and test new drugs

54
Q

what is digitalis?

A

a heart drug, originally from the foxglove plant

55
Q

what is aspirin?

A

a painkiller originally from a willow tree

56
Q

what is penicillin?

A

the first antibiotic, discovered by alexander flemming from the penecillium mould

57
Q

where do drugs come from?

A

traditionally, drugs came from plant extracts or microorganisms. even today, 50% + of all drugs originally came from plants (and many still do)

58
Q

why do drugs need to be trialed before public use?

A

to check if they are safe and effective. they are tested for toxicity (if its poisonous), efficacy (if it works) and dose (whats the lowest does that works)

59
Q

what is preclinical testing?

A

testing in a lab, on cells, tissues, and live animals. only drugs that pass preclinical tests will be used in clinical trials

60
Q

what are clinical trials?

A

testing on people, both healthy volunteers, and patients who might benefit from the drug. the first clinical trials give tiny doses to make sure it is safe.

61
Q

what is a double blind trial?

A

the people in the trial are split into two groups. one group will be given a placebo. the patients in the trial dont know which they are given nor do the doctors.

62
Q

what is a monoclonal antibody?

A

antibodies produced from a single clone of cells

63
Q

why are monoclonal antibodies special?

A

they are specific to one binding site on one protein antigen. this makes them useful for targeting a specific chemical or specific type of cell in the body

64
Q

where do monoclonal antibodies come from?

A

scientists make them by stimulating mouse lymphocytes (a type of white blood cell that makes antibodies)

65
Q

how are lymphocytes stimulated to make monoclonal antibodies?

A

lymphocytes are combined with a type of tumor cell to make a hybridoma cell

66
Q

what do hybridoma cells do?

A

they can divide by mitosis and make a particular antibody

67
Q

how do scientists get enough antibodies to use in treatments?

A

a single hybridoma cell is cloned to make lots of identical cells. they all make the same antibody, so lots of the antibody can be collected

68
Q

what do scientists do to the antibodies before use?

A

they need to be purified to remove any toxins, viruses or fragments of DNA that may have come from the hybridoma cells.

69
Q

what are monoclonal antibodies used to diagnose?

A

most common use is pregnancy. theyre used in testing kits and cause colour change if pregnancy hormones are present.

70
Q

what are monoclonal antibodies used for in labs?

A

measuring tiny levels of hormones or other blood chemicals, or detecting pathogens is more easily done using monoclonal antibodies

71
Q

what are monoclonal antibodies used for in research?

A

scientists have found ways of attaching fluorescent dye to monoclonal antibodies so that when they bind to particular molecules in cells, the cell will fluoresce / glow

72
Q

why might fluorescent binding be useful in the future?

A

operations to remove malignant cells is difficult as some of the cells may not be removed. if the cells were fluorescent then the surgeon could see all the tumor and remove it.

73
Q

what are monoclonal antibodies used to treat?

A

monoclonal antibodies can be joined to a radioactive substance, a toxic drug or chemical that stops cells from dividing. the antibody can target specific cells and deliver the substance.

74
Q

why is it useful to deliver a drug using monoclonal antibodies?

A

the drug treatment can be targeted, and only specific cells will get the drug. if a cell doesnt have the antibody binding site it will not be affected or damaged.

75
Q

why arent monoclonal antibodies used so often?

A

monoclonal antibodies create more side effects than expected so they arent used as widely as scientists first hoped

76
Q

what sort of diseases can plants get?

A
  • viral
  • bacterial
  • fungal
  • damage from insects
77
Q

how can we tell if plants are diseased?

A
  • stunted growth
  • spots on leaves
  • areas of decay
  • growths
  • malformed stems or leaves
  • discoloured areas
  • presence of pests
78
Q

how can a disease in a plant be identified?

A

looking up the disease in a gardening book or website, or taking the infected plant to a lab where they can easily identify the pathogen.

79
Q

can monoclonal antibodies be used to identify plant disease?

A

yes, testing kits are available using monoclonal antibodies for some plant diseases

80
Q

what insects can damage a plant?

A

aphids (greenfly, whitefly, blackfly) feed on the sugars in the plant phloem and can reduce plant growth. they can also spread diseases as they feed.

81
Q

what else can damage plants?

A

deficiency diseases of plants exist. if the plant doesnt get enough mineral ions their growth can be affected.

82
Q

what happens when a plant has a nitrate ion deficiency?

A

a lack of nitrate will cause stunted growth as the plant can no longer produce enough amino acids to build proteins during protein synthesis.

83
Q

what happens when a plant has a magnesium ion deficiency?

A

a lack of magnesium will cause chlorosis. magnesium is needed to produce chlorophyll, so chlorosis is patches of yellow on leaves where chlorophyll is lacking.

84
Q

how can plants physically defend themselves from disease?

A
  • tough cellulose cell walls
  • tough waxy cuticle on leaves
  • thick layers of dead cells around stems
    (bark) fall off
    these prevent microogranisms from invading
85
Q

how can plants chemically defend themselves from disease?

A
  • antibacterial chemicals which can kill
    invading bacteria
  • poisons to deter herbivores from grazing
    on them (eg. cyanide)
86
Q

what are mechanical adaptations to prevent disease in plants?

A
  • thorns/ hairs on plants to deter grazers
  • leaves droop or curl when touched
  • some mimic insects to avoid being grazed

biology paper 1 (11 decks)

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