Individualistic theories of crime Flashcards
notes
Describe the Individualistic Theory of Crime.
Individualistic theories are psychological theories suggesting that criminality has psychological rather than biological causes, with some overlap with biological and sociological theories.
How do learning theories explain criminal behaviour?
Learning theories suggest that criminal behaviours are learned either directly through reward and punishment or indirectly by observing others being rewarded or punished and imitating that behaviour.
Define Social Learning Theory.
Social Learning Theory attempts to explain socialization and its effect on the development of the self, focusing on individual learning processes and societal influences.
What is the role of role models in Social Learning Theory?
Role models are individuals whose behaviour we observe and imitate, and their actions can be reinforced vicariously, becoming internalized as part of our own behaviour.
How does Social Learning Theory relate to crime?
According to Social Learning Theory, individuals engage in crime due to their associations with others who commit crimes, viewing such behaviour as desirable or justifiable.
Who is Albert Bandura and what is he known for?
Albert Bandura is a Canadian-born American psychologist known for originating social cognitive theory and for his modelling study on aggression, the ‘Bobo doll’ experiment.
Explain the concept of vicarious reinforcement as proposed by Bandura.
Vicarious reinforcement occurs when an individual observes someone being rewarded for a behaviour, making them more likely to imitate that behaviour.
What are ‘models’ in the context of Bandura’s theory?
‘Models’ are individuals from whom we learn behaviour, and we tend to imitate those who hold a higher status than ourselves.
What impact do positive and negative consequences have on behaviour imitation according to Bandura?
Positive consequences make it more likely to imitate a model’s behaviour, while negative consequences make it less likely.
Describe the Bobo doll study conducted by Bandura.
The Bobo doll study involved children observing two different models: one aggressive model who displayed aggression towards the doll by punching, kicking, and hitting it.
Describe Bandura’s findings related to the BOBO doll experiment.
Bandura’s BOBO doll experiment demonstrated that children imitate aggressive behaviour observed in adults, particularly when that behaviour is rewarded.
How does social learning theory explain the acquisition of deviant behaviour in children?
Social learning theory posits that children learn deviant behaviour by observing role models and imitating their actions, especially when those actions are rewarded.
Define Differential Association Theory as proposed by Edwin Sutherland.
Differential Association Theory suggests that individuals learn criminal behaviour and values from their associations with others, particularly family and peer groups.
What are the two factors that Sutherland identified as influencing criminal behaviour?
Sutherland identified imitation, where individuals acquire criminal skills by observing others, and learned attitudes, where socialization in a group influences a person’s norms and values.
How did Osbourne and West’s study contribute to the understanding of criminal behaviour in families?
Osbourne and West found that 40% of sons with criminal fathers acquired a criminal conviction by age 18, compared to only 13% of sons without criminal fathers, highlighting the influence of familial associations.
Evaluate the strengths of Differential Association Theory.
Strengths include the existence of crime families supporting learned social norms and evidence that juvenile delinquents often associate with peers exhibiting antisocial behaviour.
What are some weaknesses of Differential Association Theory?
Weaknesses include the fact that not everyone exposed to criminal behaviour becomes a criminal and that individuals may learn about crime without ever committing it.
Explain the concept of Operant Learning Theory.
Operant Learning Theory states that behaviours are influenced by the consequences they produce; behaviours followed by rewards are likely to be repeated, while those followed by punishment are less likely to occur.
How does Differential Reinforcement Theory relate to criminal behaviour?
Differential Reinforcement Theory, as proposed by Skinner, suggests that criminal behaviour is learned through the reinforcement of behaviours, where more rewarding criminal acts are more likely to be repeated.
What types of rewards might encourage criminal behaviour according to Jeffery’s perspective?
Rewards that might encourage criminal behaviour include financial gain, emotional benefits such as friendships and family connections, and respect from peers.
Discuss the strengths of Operant Learning Theory based on Skinner’s experiments.
Strengths of Operant Learning Theory include its foundation in empirical research, as Skinner’s experiments demonstrated the principles of reinforcement and punishment in shaping behaviour.
Describe how reinforcement learning can apply to criminal behaviour according to Jeffery.
Jeffery states that if crime leads to more rewarding than punishing outcomes for an individual, they will be more likely to offend.
Identify a major weakness of reinforcement learning theories in relation to human behaviour.
Reinforcement learning theories are based on studies of animals, not on crime in humans.
Explain a limitation of reinforcement learning theories regarding internal processes.
These theories ignore internal mental processes such as thinking, personal values, and attitudes.
Define psychodynamic theories in psychology.
Psychodynamic theories are a famous psychological theory of behaviour that states our personality develops through stages.
How does the psychodynamic theory view personality development?
It sees our personality as containing an active force that causes us to act in the way we do.
What role do unconscious forces play in psychodynamic theories?
Unconscious forces drive all behaviour, including criminality.
Summarize Freud’s iceberg analogy regarding the mind.
Freud suggested that the part of the mind we know about is simply ‘the tip of an iceberg’, with most of our mind being unconscious.
What does Freud mean by ‘the child is the father to the man’?
Freud means that our early childhood experiences determine our personality and future behaviours.
Describe the Tripartite Theory of Personality according to Freud.
The Tripartite Theory of Personality consists of three parts: Id, Ego, and Superego.
What is the Id in Freud’s Tripartite Theory?
The Id is present from birth, operates on the pleasure principle, and represents our basic needs requiring instant gratification.
Explain the role of the Ego in Freud’s personality theory.
The Ego develops from about 18 months and operates on the reality principle, acting as a mediator between the Id and Superego.
What is the Superego and when does it develop?
The Superego develops after the completion of the Phallic stage and internalizes the morality of the same-sex parent.
How does an imbalance in Freud’s personality theory lead to criminal behaviour?
If one aspect of personality dominates, such as the Id, a person may act impulsively, leading to criminal behaviour.
What characterizes a weak superego according to Freud?
A weak superego occurs when the same-sex parent is absent during the phallic stage, leading to a lack of morality to internalize.
Describe a deviant superego as per Freud’s theory.
A deviant superego develops when a child identifies with a same-sex parent who is criminal, adopting a similar morality.
What happens when a superego is harsh or overdeveloped?
A harsh or overdeveloped superego results in strong identification with a strict parent, leading to moralistic and judgmental behaviour.
Describe the Oedipus complex and its significance in child development.
The Oedipus complex occurs during the phallic stage around age 3, involving a child’s strong love for the opposite-sex parent and fear of the same-sex parent. It is significant as it leads to the child identifying with the same-sex parent and internalizing their values and beliefs.
How does a dominant id develop according to psychoanalytic theory?
A dominant id develops when children do not fully develop their egos and superegos by identifying with their same-sex parents, potentially leading to issues in moral development
What did Bowlby’s study on juvenile delinquents reveal about maternal deprivation?
Bowlby’s study found that 39% of juvenile delinquents had experienced separation from their mothers for six months or more during their first five years, compared to only 5% of non-criminal juveniles, highlighting the impact of maternal deprivation.
Define Bowlby’s maternal deprivation theory.
Bowlby’s maternal deprivation theory posits that children are biologically pre-programmed to form attachments for survival, with a critical period for attachment development up to age 5. Failure to form these attachments can lead to long-term social and emotional difficulties.
How do early socialization and family relationships influence criminal behaviour?
Early socialization and family relationships are crucial in understanding criminal behaviour, as they shape a child’s moral development and attachment styles, which can influence their future actions.
What are some strengths of psychoanalysis in understanding criminal behaviour?
Strengths of psychoanalysis include its emphasis on the importance of early socialization and family relationships, as well as its influence on policies addressing crime and deviance.
What are some criticisms of psychoanalysis?
Criticisms of psychoanalysis include doubts about the existence of the unconscious mind, its unscientific and subjective nature, and reliance on psychoanalysts’ interpretations of an individual’s mind.
Explain the concept of ‘affectionless psychopathy’ as proposed by Bowlby.
Affectionless psychopathy refers to a condition that may arise from continual disruption of a child’s primary attachment, leading to long-term social and emotional difficulties.
How does Bowlby’s theory suggest the timing of attachment formation affects a child?
Bowlby’s theory suggests that there is a critical period for attachment formation up to age 5; if an attachment is not formed during this time, it may not develop later, impacting the child’s emotional and social development.
Discuss the implications of Bowlby’s findings for understanding delinquency.
Bowlby’s findings imply that maternal deprivation in early childhood can significantly increase the risk of delinquency, emphasizing the need for stable parent-child relationships to prevent criminal behaviour.
Describe the weaknesses of retrospective studies in psychological research.
Participants must actively recall past events, which can lead to inaccuracies and biases in the data.
What is the significance of Blowby’s findings regarding affectionless psychopathy?
Blowby found that in a study of 60 children with long periods of separation before age 5, there was no evidence of affectionless psychopathy.
Summarize the link between maternal deprivation and criminality according to Sammons and Putwain.
The link between maternal deprivation and criminality is no longer widely accepted in contemporary research.
Define extraversion in Eysenck’s psychological theory.
Extraversion refers to a state of arousal in the nervous system where individuals are under-aroused and seek stimulation.
How does Eysenck define introversion?
Introversion is characterized by being innately over-aroused, leading individuals to reduce or avoid stimulation.
What does neuroticism indicate in Eysenck’s personality theory?
Neuroticism indicates a tendency to react quickly and be vigilant for threats in the environment.
Explain the concept of stability in Eysenck’s personality dimensions.
Stability refers to being calm under pressure and having an underactive sympathetic nervous system.
What is psychoticism according to Eysenck?
Psychoticism is associated with higher levels of testosterone, making men more likely to exhibit psychotic traits.
Describe the dimensions of personality identified by Eysenck.
Eysenck identified two main dimensions: Extraversion vs. Introversion and Neuroticism vs. Emotional Stability.
How did Eysenck conduct his research in 1947?
Eysenck analysed questionnaires completed by 700 servicemen using factor analysis to identify personality dimensions.
What are the characteristics of extroverts according to Eysenck?
Extroverts are sociable but become bored easily and require a high level of stimulation.
Contrast the traits of introverts with those of extroverts.
Introverts need very little stimulation and often maintain control over their situations, unlike extroverts.
What distinguishes neurotics from stable personalities?
Neurotics are often anxious and irrational, while stable personalities are more emotionally well-adjusted and worry less.
What additional trait did Eysenck later add to his personality theory?
Eysenck later added psychoticism, describing individuals who are cold, uncaring, and aggressive.
How does Eysenck relate personality types to criminal behaviour?
Eysenck believed that extroverted, neurotic, and psychotic personality types are more likely to commit crimes due to their impulsive nature.
What are the implications of Eysenck’s theory on the behaviour of criminals?
Criminals are often impulsive, thrill-seeking, unstable, and struggle to understand or accept societal rules.
Discuss the role of conditioning in Eysenck’s theory of criminality.
Conditioning suggests that individuals learn through experience, impacting their ability to follow societal rules.
How does genetic inheritance factor into Eysenck’s theory of criminal personality?
Eysenck posited that some individuals inherit a nervous system predisposed to developing a criminal personality.
What challenges do neurotics face in learning societal rules according to Eysenck?
Neurotics have high anxiety levels that hinder their ability to learn from punishment.
Describe the behaviour of extraverts in relation to their nervous system needs.
Extraverts have a nervous system that requires high levels of stimulation, leading them to seek excitement.
What are the strengths of Eysenck’s personality theory?
Eysenck’s theory is useful in describing measurable tendencies that may increase the risk of offending, with some studies supporting the link between E, N, and P personalities and criminality.
Identify the weaknesses of Eysenck’s personality theory.
Critics argue that not all prisoners fit the E personality type, and the correlation between personality and criminality does not establish causation.
What do cognitive theories of crime focus on?
Cognitive theories focus on mental processes such as attitudes, beliefs, reasoning, problem-solving, decision-making, and self-control.
How did Yochelson and Samenow apply personality theory to criminality?
Yochelson and Samenow suggested that criminals are prone to faulty thinking patterns.
Describe criminal thinking errors and their prevalence in society.
Criminal thinking errors are prevalent in society and are identified in the work of Stanton Samenow and Yochelson. Although labelled as ‘criminal thinking,’ these errors exist in varying degrees in everyone.
How do offenders exhibit criminal thinking errors?
Offenders take criminal thinking errors to the extreme, developing patterns of thinking and behaviour that continually victimize and harm others.
Define the term ‘criminal thinking errors.’
Criminal thinking errors refer to a range of cognitive biases and errors in decision-making that are often exhibited by criminals, leading to harmful behaviours.
List some common criminal thinking errors.
Common criminal thinking errors include lying, secretiveness, a need for power and control, super-optimism, failure to understand other positions, lack of trust in others, a sense of uniqueness, and adopting a victim stance.
Explain the concept of ‘super-optimism’ in the context of criminal thinking errors.
Super-optimism is a criminal thinking error where individuals have an unrealistic belief in their ability to succeed or avoid consequences, often leading to risky behaviours.
How does the feeling of uniqueness contribute to criminal thinking errors?
The feeling of uniqueness, or the belief that one is special, can lead individuals to justify their harmful actions, believing that the rules do not apply to them.
What role does secretiveness play in criminal thinking errors?
Secretiveness is a criminal thinking error that involves hiding information or intentions, which can facilitate further deceitful or harmful behaviours.
Discuss the impact of a lack of trust in others as a criminal thinking error.
A lack of trust in others can lead to isolation and a distorted view of relationships, contributing to manipulative or harmful behaviours.
How does the victim stance manifest in criminal thinking?
The victim stance is a criminal thinking error where individuals perceive themselves as victims, justifying their harmful actions by blaming others for their circumstances.
Identify the relationship between criminal thinking errors and patterns of behaviour.
Criminal thinking errors can develop into consistent patterns of thinking and behaviour that perpetuate a cycle of victimization and harm towards others.
