Individual Differences - Level 4 Flashcards
Nomothetic
Psychologists who adopt this approach are mainly concerned with studying what we share with others.
Ideographic
Psychologists interested in this aspect of experience want to discover what makes each of us unique.
ABC format
Model used to illustrate the role of cognitions and behaviours within us; particularly concentrates on how people become emotionally disturbed or self-defeating. In other words, from the adversities (A), individuals bring their beliefs, values, purposes, etc. (B) to these As. They then feel and act ‘disturbedly’ at point (C) – their emotional and behavioural consequences. The key to learning optimism lies in the formation of belief (at B); in other words, how you may think and feel about bad things, or misfortunes (adversity – A) will actually determine the consequences (C) that you will face.
Ability traits
Traits that determine how well you deal with a particular situation and how well you reach whatever your goal is in that situation.
Above-average ability
Within Renzulli’s three-ring theory of giftedness, above-average ability, at a general level, represents high levels of abstract thought, adaptation to novel situations and the ability to retrieve information rapidly and accurately.
Abreaction
The discharge of upsetting emotions relating to
their conflicts, in a therapy session.
Abstract conceptualisation
Learning by creating theories to
explain our observations and behaviours.
Abstract reasoning
To use the faculty of reason; think logically
with abstract material.
Acceptance of uncertainty
Refers to individuals who completely accept the fact that we live in a world of probability and chance, where there are not – and probably never will be – any
absolute certainties.
Accommodating
A learning style that is a combination of concrete experience and active experimentation.
Activating event
Within Ellis’ ABC model, the activating event (A in the model) is usually an event of an unpleasant nature that causes some unhappiness.
Active experimentation
Learning by using theories to solve problems and make decisions.
Actual selves
A term to describe how individuals really state, how they really are (as opposed to ideal selves).
Adaptability scales
In the emotional intelligence literature, this is the ability to manage and control emotions.
Adaptation
A biological structure, process or behaviour of a member of the species that enabled members’ species to survive in response to the (changed) environment, not only over other species but also over other members of the same species.
Additive genetic variance
Variation caused by the effects of numerous genes which combine in the defining of phenotypic
behaviour.
Admixture hypothesis
A hypothesis used to explain the relationship between birth order and IQ. What this hypothesis suggests is that parental intelligence and socioeconomic status are additional factors to consider in the relationship between birth order and IQ scores, coupled with the fact that parents with lower IQ scores tend to have more children.
Adoption studies
Studies where comparisons are made between siblings, twins, reared apart, parents (both biological and non-biological) and adopted children to examine the extent of genetic and environmental effects on behaviour and personality.
Affect regulation
An area used by Siever and Davis to describe the association between neurotransmitters and personality disorders relating to levels of regulation of feelings and mood.
Agency
A component of hope; reflects an individual’s determi-
nation that goals can be achieved; the mental determination or belief to go after that specific goal.
Aggregated individual discrimination
Part of social dominance theory; refers to the simple and sometimes unnoticeable individ-ual acts of discrimination by one individual against another.
Aggregated institutional discrimination
Part of social dominance theory; explains social hierarchy as the result of the procedures and actions of social institutions, such as the political organisations, church, courts and schools.
Agoraphobia
An abnormal fear of open or public places.
Agreeableness
Warm, trustful, courteous, agreeable, cooperative personality traits.
Alarm reaction
Where the nervous system becomes physically
aroused to cope with the demand for action.
Alpha range
A range within the wave signals provided by the brain. The alpha range is considered to reflect low states of arousal.
Altruism
Attitudes and behaviours that represent an unselfish
concern for the welfare of others.
Amygdala
A neural structure that is part of the temporal lobe
of the cerebrum; connected with the hypothalamus and the hippocampus. It is part of the limbic system and plays an important role in motivation and emotional behaviour.
Analogy
A comparison based on a similarity between two
things that are otherwise dissimilar.
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) – between subjects.
A parametric statistical test used to see whether a difference occurs between more than two groups of scores.
Analysis of variance – within subjects.
A parametric statistical test used when the same measure has been administered on three occasions or more.
Anthropomorphic projections
Attribution of human motivation, characteristics or behaviour to inanimate objects, animals or natural phenomena.
Antisocial personality disorder
Engages in persistent lying and stealing, has a lack of empathy for others, shows recklessness and consistently fails to plan or keep to long-term goals, shows an inability to make or maintain friends or personal relationships, has recurring difficulties with the law, unable to control their own anger and temper and shows a tendency to violate the rights and boundaries of others.
Antonyms
A word having a meaning opposite to that of another
word.
Anxiety
A psychological and physiological state characterised by
feelings that are typically associated with uneasiness, fear or worry.
Anxiety/inhibition
An area used by Siever and Davis to describe the association between neurotransmitters and personality disorders relating to levels of anxiety and inhibition.
Anxious–avoidant
A type of attachment style. An insecure attachment where children do not appear too distressed when separated from a caregiver, and, upon reunion, actively avoid seeking contact with their parent.
Anxious–resistant
A type of attachment style. An insecure attachment style where children are ill at ease, and upon separation from a caregiver they become distressed. When reunited
with their mother, these children have a difficult time being calmed down or soothed.
Applied value
The usefulness of a theory as containing rules that can be applied to solve problems.
Approach–approach conflict
Describes the situation where there are two equally desirable goals, but they are incompatible.
Approach–avoidance conflict
Describes the situation where there is one goal; but, while an element of it is attractive, an aspect of it is equally unattractive.
Armchair speculation
A methodology that can be used by anyone; it involves making good, unbiased observations of how people behave in certain situations and then generating and testing hypotheses about these behaviours. This method allows deep knowledge due to observations in different situations in life, as opposed to only within the therapy room.
Ascending reticular activating system (ARAS).
This system, which is located in the brain stem, manages the amount of information or stimulation that the brain receives.
Assimilating
A learning style that is a combination of observation, reflection and abstract conceptualisation.
Associational fluency
A highly specific ability to produce rapidly a series of words or phrases associated in meaning.
Associative memory
Ability to recall one part of a previously learned but unrelated pair of items.
Assortative mating
When individuals mate with individuals that are like themselves (positive assortative mating) or dissimilar (negative assortative mating). These two types of assortative mating are thought to have the effect of reducing and expanding the range of variation of heritable traits.
Attachment style
Considered to be a major component of relationships, and suggests that our childhood attachments influence our adult relationships.
Attitudes
One of three dynamic traits in Cattell’s theory of per-
sonality. Attitudes represent a specific trait and help to predict
how we will behave in a particular situation.
Attributes of the observer
Key characteristics of the person observing the behaviour.
Auditory processing
Abilities relating to the functions of hearing.
Authoritarianism (right wing)
Thought to comprise a set of right-wing behaviours, showing excessive conformity, intolerance of others, rigid and stereotyped thought patterns.
Avoidance–avoidance conflict
Describes the situation where the individual is faced with what they perceive to be two equally undesirable alternatives.
Avoidant personality disorder
Considered the most severe form of social anxiety; shows a detached personality pattern, meaning that the person purposefully avoids people due to fears
of humiliation and rejection. Typical behaviours of someone with this disorder include a reluctance to become involved with people, having no close friends, exaggerating potential difficulties and avoiding activities or occupations involving contact with others.
Awfulising
Statements characterised by words like ‘awful’, ‘terrible’, ‘horrible’, etc. Awfulising occurs when individuals believe that unpleasant or negative events are the worst that they could possibly be. In other words, the person exaggerates the consequences of past, present or future events, seeing them as the worst that could happen.
Basic anxiety
Within Horney’s theory of personality, basic anxiety is described as a feeling of being isolated and helpless in a potentially hostile world.
Basic needs theory
A subtheory of social determination theory that proposed three main universal, innate and psychological
intrinsic needs that influence an individual’s self-determination.
Basic personality structure approach
A psychological anthropology approach that compares the traits of the individuals of each society to achieve a basic personality for each culture.
Behaviour potential.
The likelihood of a specific behaviour
occurring in a particular situation.
Behavioural approach system (BAS).
Comprises motivations to approach. This system causes the individual to be sensitive to potential rewards and to seek those rewards.
Behavioural asymmetry
Part of social dominance theory; refers to the fact that members of dominant and subordinate groups will act differently in a wide variety of situations.
Behavioural factors
Aspects of an individual’s behaviour.
Behavioural genetics
The field of research that attempts to quantify the genetic contribution to behaviour and to locate specific genes, or groups of genes, associated with behavioural
traits.
Behavioural inhibition
A tendency in babies to restrain their own impulses or desires.
Behavioural inhibition system (BIS)
Comprises motivations to avoid. Within this system are those motivations that make the individual sensitive to punishment or potential and inclined to avoid those punishments.
Behavioural signature of personality
If … then … propositions
that represent our characteristic reactions to situations.
Behaviourism
This describes a school of psychology, founded by J. B. Watson, where the focus is purely on observable aspectsof behaviour. Within this approach individuals are understood in term of their learning history.
Being cognition (B-cognition)
The different style of thinking adopted by self-actualisers. It is non-judgemental and involves feelings of being at one with the world. It is a transient state experienced at times of self-actualisation.
Belief system
Beliefs, values and purposes (B in the model) of an individual, used specifically within Ellis’ ABC model.
Beta range
A range within the wave signals provided by the
brain. The beta range is considered to reflect activity.
Big optimism
Used by researchers to understand the differences
between the two main theories of optimism. Big optimism is dispositional optimism.
Biologisation
An emphasis for arguments put forward by bio-
logical and evolutionary psychology.
Birth order
The order that children have been born into a family. Adler contributed significantly to the development of an individual’s style of life.
B-love or Being-love
Involves being able to love others in a non-possessive, unconditional way. It is simply loving them for being. It is a growth need, and Maslow sees it as representing an emotionally mature type of love.
Borderline personality disorder
Characterised by unstable personal relationships, poor impulse control over things such as spending money, their sexual conduct and substance misuse or abuse.
Brain stem
The portion of the brain that connects the spinal cord to the forebrain and cerebrum and controls the cardiovascular and respiratory functions.
Broad heritability
A statistical estimate of the total genetic variation in a population; refers to both additive genetic variance and non-additive genetic variance.
Burnout
A state of emotional, mental and physical exhaustion
caused by excessive and prolonged stress.
Cardinal traits
Single traits that may dominate an individual’s personality and heavily influence their behaviour. These may be thought of as obsessions or ruling passions that produce a need that demands to be fulfilled.
Castration anxiety
When boys become aware that girls do not possess a penis, they respond by becoming anxious about the
thought of losing their own penis. It has come to have a wider meaning in society, referring to a male’s worry about losing his power, especially to a woman.
Catharsis
The physical expression of emotions associated with
our earlier conflicts within the therapy session.
Cathexis
Refers to the way that libidinal energy becomes invested in the object or person that is providing satisfaction of the current instinctual need.
Causality orientation theory
A subtheory of social determination theory that looks at the role of individual differences in motivational orientations.
Central traits
The five to ten traits that Allport felt best describe an individual’s personality. They are generally applicable to that person regardless of situational factors.
Characteristic adaptations
Individual motives, personal goals, self-image, schemas, significant life experiences that have been identified as influences on personality.
Characteristics of the model
Main features of the approach.
Child-driven effects
How differences between children within the same family will influence different reactions in the parents to how they treat the child.
Child-effects model
Describes genetic transmission of phenotypes; suggesting that the genes cause the behaviour, which in
turn causes the same or similar behaviour in the parent.
Choice corollary
The process whereby people make judgements about their reality, choosing the alternative that in their view best fits the situation. Kelly saw individuals as free to choose and claimed that people generally make choices that increase their understanding of the world, and in this way, they grow as individuals.
Choleric temperament
Describing an individual who has a tendency to be easily angered.
Circumplex Theory of Affect
A model of mood that comprises
positive and negative affect.
Circumspection–pre-emption–control (CPC) cycle
Within Kelly’s personal construct theory, this cycle describes the way that we behave when we are faced with a situation.
Circumstantial
Used by Seligman in optimism and helplessness theory; describes when a person has learned to attribute their failures in situations to do with factors outside or external to the individual (compare to Internal/Internal factors).
Classical conditioning
A form of associative learning that studies the relationship between a stimulus and the response to it.
Clinical theories
A methodology that involves observing differences among therapists’ patients, or clients. In other words,
within the therapy setting, the therapist is allowed access to the individual nature of their client and can see at first hand how that client either deviates from or conforms to the generalisations of psychological theory.
Cognitive-affective processing system (CAPS).
Mischel and Shoda’s model of personality; emphasises the individual’s mental and emotional processes as essential components.
Cognitive-affective units (CAUs)
Include the individual’s representations of self, others, situations, expectations, beliefs, long-term goals, values, emotional states, competencies, self-regulatory systems and memories of people and past events.
Cognitive assessment system (CAS)
An IQ test designed to measure cognitive processing, integrating theoretical and applied areas of psychological knowledge, thereby assessing how
knowledge is organised and accessed in the memory system, as well as assessing how various intellectual tasks are achieved.
Cognitive evaluation theory (CET)
A subtheory of social determination theory that describes how intrinsic motivations are affected by social context and specifically influenced by external
events.
Cognitive/perceptual
An area used by Siever and Davis to describe the association between neurotransmitters and personality disorders relating to cognitive and perceptual functioning.
Cognitive processing speed (Gs).
The ability to perform cognitive tasks automatically and fluently.
Cognitive psychology
An area of psychology that investigates internal mental processes such as problem-solving, perception, memory and language.
Cognitive stimulation hypothesis
Assumption suggesting that higher intelligence scores are derived from improvements in cognitive stimulation such as improved schooling, different parental rearing styles, better educated parents, smaller families
and greater availability of educational toys.
Collective agency
Describes the situation where a group of individuals come together believing that they can make a difference to their own and/or others’ life circumstances.
Commitment
A component of Sternberg’s triangular theory of
love, concerned with cognitive functioning; represents aspects of love that involve both the short-term decision that one individual loves another and the longer term commitment to maintain that love. In the investment model, commitment represents a psychological attachment to the relationship.
Common traits
Ways of classifying groups of individuals, with
one group being classified as being more dominant, happier or whatever than another comparable group.
Communality corollary
Refers to Kelly’s view that individuals who share similar constructions of their experience are alike psychologically. This means that they will behave in similar ways.
