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PS1814 Semester 2 Material > Individual Differences: Lectures 10-13 > Flashcards

Individual Differences: Lectures 10-13 Flashcards

1
Q

The organisation of personality

A

Psychic ‘structures’ identified by Freud
Id
Ego
Super-ego (ego ideal)

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2
Q

The id

A

Primitive component of personality

Present from birth

Governed by the pleasure principle

Demands instant gratification
Food, sex, etc.

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3
Q

The ego

A

Ego channels energy of the id in constructive ways

Acts on information gathered through the perceptual system

Governed by the reality principle
“Like a man on horseback”

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4
Q

The superego

A

Moral branch of personality

Strives for perfection

Derived from parental moral standards

Two components
Ego-ideal (good, rewards)
Conscience (bad, punishment)

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5
Q

The development of personality

A 
Latency stage (5-12 yrs)
Genital stage (12 yrs onward)
Phallic stage (3-5 yrs)
Anal stage (1-3 yrs)
Oral stage ( up to 1 year)
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6
Q

Stage theory of personality

A

Child moves through psychosexual stages depending on activity of erogenous zones

Libidinal energy transferred via ‘cathexis’ from one activity to the next

Fixation at any level determines adult personality

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7
Q

Oral stage (< 1 year)

A

Pleasure centred on feeding

Libidinal energy focused on caregiver
Development of trust

Fixation on oral stimulation
Leads to smoking, thumb-sucking, excess eating
Overindulgence: over-trusting, gullible adults
Underindulgence: Oral aggressive – exploitative, even sadistic adults

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8
Q

Anal stage (1-3 yrs)

A

Transfers sensual pleasure to anus

Potty training potential source of conflict

Fixation at anal stage due to carers’ demands
Anal retentive personality: hoarding behaviour, delay of gratification
Anal expulsive personality: Untidy, disorganised adults

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9
Q

Phallic stage (3-5 yrs)

A

Genitals new source of pleasure

Gratification from ‘masturbation’
Penis envy in girls, castration anxiety in boys

Oedipus complex, if unresolved, may lead to:
Promiscuity (seeking unrequited sexual gratification)
Choice of same-sex romantic partner (‘failure’ to identify)

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10
Q

Later development

A 
Latency stage (5-12 yrs) as resting period
Same-sex peer relations
Genital stage (12 yrs onward)
Puberty: interest in opposite sex

Problems resulting from earlier fixation
Oral: failure to trust

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11
Q

Psychoanalytic theory after Freud

A

Freud died in 1939 (after moving to London)

By then, several ‘schools’ of psychoanalytic theory already established
Adler and Jung ‘split’ after disagreements

After WW2, ‘object relations’ school in UK inspired by Melanie Klein

Jacques Lacan then developed his own version of theory in France in 1950s onwards

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12
Q

Early individual difference research

A

Francis Galton: bloodlines’
Psychometrics (inc. correlation)
IQ tests

Spearman ‘g factor’ of intelligence

Combination of Darwinism and statistics

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13
Q

Approaches to personality

A

Trait theory in this tradition
Eysenck
Big Five

Humanistic approaches

‘Situational’ theory

Personality as shaped by social experience

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14
Q

Psychoanalytic theory

A

Seeks to explain how personality develops across the lifespan (though largely based on childhood)

Individual differences arise due to ‘fixation’ at critical periods

Addresses many criticisms of other personality theories
Considers developmental influences
Considers relationships with others (i.e., life history)
Person as reflexive: seeking meaning, understanding the self
Offers potential for change (if desired)

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15
Q

Western culture ‘saturated’ with psychoanalytic discourse (Frosh, 2012)

A

The interpretation of dreams

‘Freudian slips’ revealing ‘true’ beliefs/thoughts
Likewise, the first thing you say (‘free association’)
‘Phallic’ symbols revealing unconscious desires

Repressing thoughts/memories as ‘unhealthy’

Modern emphasis on ‘catharsis’ (‘letting it all out’)

Psychologists as ‘reading minds’, surreptitiously taking notes, etc.
Other imagery: couches, ‘shrinks’, the psyche

People as fixated: ‘anal’ about things, etc.
Governed by ‘drives’, e.g. libido,

Strong influence in film and cultural theory
e.g. viewer identification (with protagonists)

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16
Q

The Freudian project

A

Freud trained as a medic: strong belief in possibility of science, and psychoanalysis as a scientific practice

Believed that he could explain the causes of behaviour (but only ever worked backwards)

Wanted to be able to explain religion away as a psychological ‘impulse’

Brought sexuality into public and intellectual debate

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17
Q

Key ideas in Freudian theory: 1) The unconscious

A

3 systems of thought:
Conscious (in awareness)
Preconscious (accessible, but not yet in awareness)
Unconscious (inaccessible; repressed)

Material in unconscious seeps out in dreams, slips, symbols;
or can be teased out in psychoanalysis (‘the talking cure’)

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18
Q

Drives and impulses

A

Biological forces, represented as ideas

The sexual instinct, represented as pleasure

Psychosexual stages in childhood, depending on location of pleasure (‘erogenous zones’)
Oral stage (<1): feeding, sucking, caregiver
Anal stage (1-3): excretory functions
Phallic stage (3-5): genitals, sexual identification with parent

Other drives to do with survival (thirst, hunger) and death (destruction)

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19
Q

Defence mechanisms

A

Unconscious processes protecting from intrusion of unconscious thoughts

Repression: ‘motivated forgetting’ (Frosh, 2012) – e.g. being ‘in denial’ about something
Typically sexual (in Freud’s time)

Can be primary (immediate) or secondary (becomes repressed)

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20
Q

‘Object relations’ school

A

Primarily British, developing Kleinian ideas

Donald Winnicott
Influential British psychoanalyst

Idea of transitional object that represents mother (caregiver) when absent

Can evolve into cultural objects later in life

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21
Q

True vs. false self

A

Important Winnicottian idea

Mother/child bond important for stability

When mother anxious/stressed, child develops ‘false self’ to meet her needs rather than its own desires

Importance of symbolic space (objects representing mother) for development of creativity and ‘object permanence’

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22
Q

Jacques Lacan (1901-81)

A

French psychoanalyst who developed own theoretical tradition

Also saw ‘splitting’ as central to development

Primarily concerned with role of culture, particularly language, in childhood

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23
Q

The symbolic order

A

Language is essential to our understanding of the world

We become ‘subjected’ to language, it is not ours

Not just a representation of inner desires/’truth’

Language is performative, it does things and creates meaning

Don’t try ‘to understand more than what there is in the discourse of the subject’ (Lacan, 1954)

24
Q

The real

A

This is what cannot be symbolised, what lurks beneath the surface

Enjoyment of horror films (the monster in the attic etc.) - recognised by audiences, works through remembered anxiety from infancy

25
Q

Two important Lacanian concepts: The mirror stage

A

Child presented with specular image of self – first idea of ‘self’ as coherent entity

However this is a false image (mirror is only reflection)
The ego is created through external world, via language

26
Q

Lacan’s reworking of Freud’s ego and superego

A

Mirror image as the other (a), or ‘ideal-ego’: what I would like to be
Initially the integrated self, later any object of desire, depending on fantasy (e.g. role modelling)

Watched over by the Big Other (A), or the ego-ideal: who (or what) I seek to impress
Initially the mother, later the ‘symbolic order’ – language, culture, law

27
Q

Adler: importance of siblings

A

Rather neglected in Freud’s work

But birth order has huge implications
Eldest as ‘dethroned monarch’
Youngest likely to be spoiled
Middle children have best life chances?

28
Q

Social interaction as key influence

A

Argued that sex and aggression arose from separate drives in childhood

Freud later agreed, but claimed it was his idea!

Influential concept of inferiority complex
This makes us reluctant to take risks and trust others
Or: overcompensate, developing an unhelpful superiority complex

29
Q

Carl Jung

A

Broke with Freud over sex in 1914

Psychic structure of ego, personal unconscious and collective unconscious

Myths, fantasies from ancient cultures (devils, spirits, etc) as part of evolutionary history

30
Q

Importance of archetypes

A

Persona: the ‘mask’ we adopt to cope with social interaction

Shadow: (largely) sinister aspects of personal unconscious

Anima/animus: Aspects of opposite gender

Self: potential for unique individuality

31
Q

Personality types

A

First instance of ‘extroversion’ and ‘introversion’ – though as discrete types of person

Governed by outward/inward ‘flow of psychic energy’ (e.g. pleasure-seeking or sensitive)

Both types further differentiated as:
Thinking
Feeling
Intuitive

Basis of later Myers-Briggs personality type inventory (MBTI)

32
Q

Karen Horney

A

Psychoanalysed by Karl Abraham when depressed after mother’s death

Unsatisfied by claims that sex was underlying cause of neurosis

‘Real self’ as product of good parenting
Neurosis arises from neglect, overindulgence, abuse etc.

33
Q

Critique of Freud’s patriarchal model

A

‘Penis envy’ of young girl explained as sense of loss and inferiority

But neurosis not affected by gender

Social/cultural factors, esp. power, the main explanation

‘Womb envy’ more powerful influence

34
Q

Object relations theory

A

Melanie Klein (1882-1960)

Austrian-born, but arrived in London in 1920s, before Freud

First psychoanalyst to work with young children

Focus on toy play and ‘phantasy’

35
Q

Psychic Splitting

A

First important object: the mother’s breast

Either good (provides milk) or bad (doesn’t appear)

‘Splitting’ of functions allows child to perceive objects as independent (especially people) and understand contradiction

Projection of parts of the self into good objects, e.g. admired others (but no objects ever entirely ‘good’)

36
Q

Some key Kleinian ideas

A

The importance of drives

The death drive (tendency to destruction) is particularly important, especially in fragile world of infancy

This is responsible for envy

Unlike in Freud, drives attach to specific objects

First envied object: the mother’s breast - at least when providing food

Rejecting breast becomes hated object

37
Q

Defenses

A

‘Mental representations of reality’ formed in infancy and structuring adult experience

In infancy, taking in/pushing out: later, introjection/projection

Importance of splitting

Good/bad breast: envy is overwhelming, so splitting function helps to cope

Later in life, recurs when personal boundaries threatened (in crowds, rivalry, psychotic episodes)

38
Q

Types

A

discrete categories into which we can place people

39
Q

Traits

A

continuous dimensions: A person can be positioned along the dimension according to how much of the trait they possess

40
Q

Nomothetic approach

A

People are like some other people

41
Q

Idiographic approach

A

People are like no other people

42
Q

Lexical hypothesis

A

Important traits should be revealed by most common words in natural language

43
Q

Raymond Cattell (1950s-1970s)

A 
Constitutional traits (genetic) vs. environment-mold traits (environmental)
Ability, Temperament and Dynamic Traits
Dynamic traits
Attitudes
Sentiments
Ergs
Common traits v unique traits
44
Q

Surface traits

A

cluster together in many people/many situations

45
Q

Source traits

A

underlying traits responsible for variance in surface traits

46
Q

Hans Eysenck

A

Emphasised 3 basic dimensions of personality (‘supertraits’)
Extraversion-introversion
Neuroticism-stability
Psychoticism

47
Q

The Big Five (Costa & McCrae, 1985)

A

Openness: curious, creative, open to new experiences
vs. narrow-minded, conventional

Conscientiousness: organised, disciplined, plans ahead
vs. careless, messy, impulsive

Extraversion: sociable, enthusiastic, loud
vs. introverted, reserved

Agreeableness: warm, sympathetic, easy-going
vs. quarrelsome, critical

Neuroticism: anxious, easily upset, tense
vs. calm, emotionally stable

48
Q

Hartshorne & May (1928):

A

10,000 school students were put in a series of situations in which they had the opportunity to be dishonest

Students who were dishonest in one situation were not necessarily dishonest in the others – correlation was below 0.3

49
Q

Summary of Individual Differences- Humanist

A

A personality trait is an enduring characteristic that predicts an individual’s behaviour and varies on a continuum

Theorists have disagreed on the number of core traits but most evidence, including factor analysis, converges on 5 (OCEAN; McCrae & Costa) that are related to behaviour and can be applied to predict health and work outcomes

Trait approaches have been criticised for focusing on description not explanation, and for assuming too much consistency across time, situations (i.e., situationism), culture, and people (i.e., nomothetic)

50
Q

Carl Rogers

A

Clinical approach but potential for change

Problems caused by blocks to self-actualisation potential

51
Q

Summary of Humanistic Part 2

A

Humanistic theorists view humans as innately good and motivated to grow and develop towards self-actualisation

Focus is on the individual and that people’s motivations and experiences are varied and create both uniqueness (individual differences)

Propose however that there are also some universal (common) motivations and needs that we all share and have in common.

Maslow proposed that needs are met (and thus drive motivation) in a hierarchical structure; his ideas were not readily testable but have been applied widely to business

Rogers proposed that self-actualisation can only happen given unconditional positive regard and thus self-acceptance, and applied his ideas to therapy and educational practice

52
Q

The humanistic approach

A

Core features:
Positive view of human nature

Personal growth

Oriented toward present/future

Free will and personal responsibility

Phenomenological i.e., emphasis is on the individual

53
Q

Maslow’s view on development

A

Childhood
Innate motivation to grow and develop (instinctoid tendencies)
Flourish when given choice and responsibility (+ rules)
Most societies inhibit development

Psychopathology
reflects unmet needs
Basic levels = more profound

Therapy: eclectic (including psychoanalysis!)

54
Q

Contemporary Research

A

Conditional positive regard: Sociometer theory (Leary et al., 1995)
Self-esteem reflects belonging/liking from others

Conditions of worth: Contingencies of self-worth (Crocker & Wolfe, 2001)
Self-esteem depends on success in personally important domains
Motivation to meet contingencies can interfere with larger goals
Insecure attachment styles relate to more contingent self-esteem
Contingent self-esteem predicts depression symptoms

Self-congruence: Self-discrepancy theory (Higgins, 1987)
Discrepancy between actual/ideal self relates to self-esteem and depression

Role of parenting – not well understood

55
Q

Client-centred / Person-centred therapy

A

Goal: To provide environment in which client can get back in touch with true self (congruence), accept themselves and their emotions, and experience growth

Therapist must provide:
Unconditional positive regard
Empathy (reflect client’s own feelings and thoughts)
Genuineness / “real”ness
Allow client to lead discussions (therapist is just facilitator)

56
Q

Summary of Humanistic Part 3

A

Humanistic theorists view humans as innately good and motivated to grow and develop towards self-actualisation

Focus is on the individual and that people’s motivations and experiences are varied and create both uniqueness (individual differences)

Propose however that there are also some universal (common) motivations and needs that we all share and have in common.

Maslow proposed that needs are met (and thus drive motivation) in a hierarchical structure; his ideas were not readily testable but have been applied widely to business

Rogers proposed that self-actualisation can only happen given unconditional positive regard and thus self-acceptance, and applied his ideas to therapy and educational practice

PS1814 Semester 2 Material (3 decks)

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