Developmental Psychology- Lectures 5-9 Flashcards
Decrement Model
Aging as a period decline
Personal Growth Model
Concentrates on advantages of growing old
Cognitive Decline
Common belief regarding cognitive ability over the life-span
Brain Growth across the lifespan
Brain develops rapidly during last period of gestation & first 2 years
At 2 years old, brain is 80% of adult weight, but continues to develop through childhood and adolescence.
Peaks of growth at age 7, 12 & 15
Synaptic Pruning (elimination of unneeded synaptic connections) Up 50% reduction between ages 2-10, continues through adolescence and into young adulthood Brain reaches full maturity at around age 24 when synaptic pruning ceases
Cognitive Decline - IQ
Crystalised intelligence (Gc) increases as we age.
Fluid Intelligence (Gf) peaks between ages 20 and 30 and then decreases over time.
Physiological changes – cardiovascular / metabolic
RTs slow
Slowing of nervous system processes
Decline in sensory system performance may be a better indicator of change.
Memory Decreases
Decreases
Episodic – free recall
Compared to young adults, older adults tend to perform more poorly on than older adults on tests of free recall.
Working Memory
Contextual
For example repeating the same story to the same person a number of times.
Memory remains unchanged
Recognition
There is less difference between young and older adults on recognition tests
Short Term Memory
Procedural
Semantic
Though begins to decrease in mid 70s
Dementia – Separate to Cognitive Decline
The predominate factor for developing Alzheimer’s disease is age
Greater life expectancy has led to increased rates.
1% prevalence at age 65%
25% prevalence at age 85
Disease, not an acceleration of normal aging
Rates actually falling in developed countries.
Social disengagement theory (Cummings & Henry, 1961)
Mutual withdrawal of the aging individual from society and of society from the individual.
Retreat of the elderly into a more solitary existence
Withdrawal from society is a voluntary, and inevitable process and represents the most appropriate way of growing old.
Detrimental consequences of theory - encourages segregation and the belief that old age has no value (Bromley, 1988)
Do the elderly really disengage (Havighurst et al., 1968)?
Those who disengage the least are happiest and tend to live longer.
Several different personality types including reorganisers and disengaged.
Focuses on quantitative rather than qualitative changes (Cartensen, 1996)
Activity Theory (Havinghurst, 1964; Maddox, 1964)
Main alternative to Social Disengagement Theory
Old people have the same psychological and social needs as middle aged.
Isolation not mutual but result of withdrawal by ageist society.
Optimal aging can be achieved by staying active and resisting ‘shrinkage’ of social world.
Maintaining activities of middle age for as long as possible
Finding substitutes for work, spouses and friends.
Unrealisitic? Major activity of middle age is ‘productive’ employment (Bond et al., 1993).
Does SDT underestimate and AT overestimate degree of control people have in the reconstruction of their lives?
Some individuals seem happy to disengage – people might be left to choose the style of ageing most suited to their personalities.
Socio-emotional selectivity theory (Carstensen, 1992, 1993, 1995; Carstensen and Turk-Charles, 1994; Lang and Carstensen, 2002)
Social contact motivated by a number of goals. Survival Information-seeking, Development of self concept, Emotion regulation.
Importance of each varies throughout life – influenced by construal of the future:
Open ended = Long term goals are important
Limited future = Attention devoted to the present – emotional states become more salient.
Age related reduction in social contact appears to be highly selective rather than reflecting a reduced capacity
Younger people faced with own mortality, make similar decisions to those of the elderly (Carstensen, 1996).
Older individuals prioritise emotionally meaningful goals (Lang & Carstensen, 2002)
Age related reduction in social contact therefore selective. Individuals choose to focus on those who can give most emotional support.
Friendships increase life expectancy more than contact with family (Giles et al., 2005)
Fear of Death
Unique as human beings in that we are aware of our own mortality.
Death Terror – fear of death present within each human being.
Conflict – We want to live but know death is inevitable.
Is death anxiety related to age?
No greater self reported levels of death anxiety in elderly (Kastenbaum, 2000)
Age however may predict nature of anxiety (Stricherz & Cunnington, 1981, 1982)
Adolescents fear possible loss of loved one or death as punishment
Adults fear experiencing painful death
Retirees fear becoming helpless and dependent on others and the impact of their deaths on loved ones.
Further distinction between ‘young old’ (70s) and ‘old old’ (80s) (Munnichs, 1966)
Young Old – What should death mean to me at this stage.
Old Old – See prospect of death as a well-known, familiar phenomenon.
Anticipatory grief – Stages of Dying (Külbler-Ross, 1969)
Denial Anger Bargaining Depression Acceptance
Bereavement – Becoming a Widow(er)
Highly stressful and emotionally demanding!
Impact on two of Erikson’s key stages, intimacy and identity
Intimacy – loss of life partner.
Identity – Identity defining routines lost, changes in life roles, changes ch in social relationships,
Role of widow(er) not clearly defined in Western society
Standard against which other types of loss are measured.
Retirement
Significant transition
Achieved on the whole without great psychological stress
Three different responses to retirement (Kloep & Hendry, 2006):
High Distress
Work as a lifestyle
Life beyond work
Again reinforces the danger inherent in treating aged as one homogenous group.
Influences on Adult Development
Three kinds of influence on the way we develop…
Normative age-graded influences
Biological
Social
Non-Normative influences
Normative history-graded influences
Levenson et al. (1978) – Seasons of Man’s Life
Four Eras Pre-Adulthood – Age 0 - 22 Early Adulthood – Age 17 - 45 Middle Adulthood – Age 40 - 65 Late Adulthood – Age 60 onwards
Early Adult Transition (17 – 22)
Developmental bridge between adolescence and adulthood.
Two key themes – ‘separation’ and ‘formation of attachments to adult world’.
Entering the adult world (22 – 28)
Entry life structure for early adulthood
Novice phase
Create provisional structure for workable link between the ‘valued’ self and adult society
Women’s dreams and gender splitting.
‘Gender splitting’ occurs in adult development (Levison, 1986).
Men = Unified visions of future
Women = Dreams split between career and marriage
Disappointment and developmental tension? (Durkin, 1995)
Age 30 transition (28 – 33)
Opportunity to work on limitations and flaws of first life structure
Set foundations for more satisfactory structure for remaining young adulthood.
Settling Down (33-40)
Culminating life structure for early adulthood.
Consolidation of the second life structure
Shift away from tentative choices
Strong sense of commitment
Two substages early settling down (33-36) and becoming ones own man (BOOM)
Mid-life Transition (40 – 45)
Termination of early adulthood structure an initiation of new life structure.
Soul searching, questioning, what has my life meant so far?
Midlife Crisis
Is there a mid-life crisis (MLC)?
Levison et al. consider that crisis is inevitable, and necessary
No soul searching at this stage will … pay the price in a later developmental crisis or in a progressive withering of the self and a life structure minimally connected to the self. (Levinson et al., 1978)
Concept of MLC to narrow.
Adolescing (Marcia 1998) – making decisions about one’s identity occurs throughout the lifespan.
Symptoms of MLC such as divorce occur more frequently before middle age.
How valid are stage theories?
Propose a ‘ladder like’ progression.
Underestimates individual differences
Is there really a discontinuity in development?
Social Clock
People unconsciously determine whether they are on time or not.
Age deviancy?
Given sheer diversity of experience can we really describe major milestones which apply to everyone?
Marriage
Social Normative age-graded influence 90% of western adults marry at least once. Mortality Happier Healthier Lower rates of mental illness.
Marriage Benefits – Gender Differences
Bee (1994)
Marriage less psychologically protective for women.
Confiding and harmonious relationship important for both sexes, however marriage does not always provide this for women.
Gender Splitting – for women the benefits of a harmonious relationship often counterbalanced with stresses from combined career/parenthood.
Divorce
Non Normative Influence
Average marriage lasts 9 years in UK – Almost half end in divorce
Peaks during first 5 years and then after 15 – 25.
Effects stability of families
Stressor for both men and women
Greater for men
Parenthood
Social Age Graded Normative Influence?
90% of adults will become parents.
Varies in meaning and impact.
Number of motives.
Traditionally domain of married couples but changing.
Delay in age of mother having first child – Related to Gender Splitting?
Motherhood
In the post industrial/modern world we remain influenced by outmoded beliefs regarding the sexes (Kramer, 1998).
Motherhood Mandate (or Mystique), is an example of this and proposes women are born and reared to be mothers.
Implications:
Motherhood is ‘natural’
Unnatural or wicked for mother to leave her children
Unnatural for mother of young children to work
Women comprise 50% of workforce.
Now less likely to leave work to care for children, however, still more likely to do so than men.
Overwhelming majority of working women prefer to be in paid employment (Kremer, 1998)
Tension - contrary to motherhood mandate there is pressure to both work and raise a family – can lead to overwork and disillusionment.
Widening definition of ambition to include all elements which bring happiness (Hill & McVeigh, 2009)
Work
Love
Family
Evolutionary perspective on motherhood
Arguing that that being ambitious is just as natural for a woman as breastfeeding, Hardy (1999) notes that for millions of years mothers combined productive lives with reproduction.
What is different is the compartmentalisation of productive and reproductive lives.
Fatherhood
In dual-earner couples both husbands and wives report greater conflict than ‘traditional’ couples.
Child care more evenly shared in dual-earner couples, however, women still primarily responsible.
Little evidence therefore that domestic responsibilities have been lifted from women ’s shoulders
New perspectives
Pleck (1999) review.
11 studies between mid 1960s and early 1980s
13 studies between mid 1980s and early 1990s
Fathers engagement increased from 34.2% to 43.5%
Fathers availability increased from 51.8% to 65.6%
A more recent (though not systematic) review by Ferreira et al (2018) confirms this shift.
Majority of studies however, on married or cohabiting fathers.
However, in the UK two parent families decreasing
When all groups taken into account a divergent picture emerges.
Two parent families where father’s involvement is increasing
Single parent families where the father has less contact.
Lesbian and Gay Parenting
Early research considered considering difference between children of homosexual and heterosexual parents found little difference in risk.
Though there may be some negative effect from divorce children tend to adjust well to their family situations.
Increasingly focus is on parents themselves.
Coming out to the children.
Co-parenting in in different permutations.
Definition of depressive disorders
A sad or irritable mood along with physical and cognitive changes that affect the ability to behave and interact in a normal way.
Young children may experiences aches and pains rather than sadness.
Dysthymia (persistent depressive disorder)
At least 2 of 9 symptoms over a year
No more than 2 months without symptoms
Major depressive disorder
At least 5 of 9 symptoms within a two week period
Must be a noticeable change
Significant distress or impairment
Diagnosis of depressive disorders
Estimates vary from 1 – 6% of children/adolescents in UK
Higher rate in adolescence
No gender differences until adolescence when rate becomes much higher in girls (ratio at least 2:1)
Often co-occurs with conduct disorder or anxiety disorders
Increases the risk of depression in adulthood
Diagnosis of anxiety disorders
Approx. 7% of children / adolescents
Most common types (England): Generalised anxiety disorder and panic disorder
No gender difference until adolescence when rate becomes higher in girls than boys (almost 2:1)
Gender difference is greatest at 17-19 years (3:1)
Increased risk of anxiety in adulthood, particularly when anxiety disorders co-occur (common)
Risk factors
Various interacting risk factors rather than a definite cause.
Internalising and externalising disorders are particularly difficult to predict because of two concepts in developmental psychopathology:
Equifinality: Different factors / combinations can lead to the same disorder.
Multifinality: The same risk factors can result in different outcomes.
Social environment
Differential responses to the expression of difficulties by boys and girls
Modelling of behaviours
High control and criticism
Low warmth and sensitivity
Poor family functioning
Low income families
Victimisation by peers
(Cause of consequence not always clear; bidirectional influences)
Genetics
Often runs in families
Genes explains about 30-40% of the variance in internalising problems
Temperament (evident from birth)
Biological factors
Puberty may affect the stress response (disproportionately in girls)
Cognitive factors
Rumination
Unrealistic and negative thoughts
Cause or consequence?
Bignardi et al. (2020)
7- to 11-year-olds (n = 168)
Significant increase in depression scores during lockdown compared to pre-lockdown →
No significant change in anxiety or other emotional problems
Longer-term effects unknown
Item scores which increased: Feels like he/she doesn’t want to move Tired a lot Feels sad or empty Nothing is much fun for my child anymore
Disruptive, impulse-control and conduct disorders (externalising problems)
Problems in the self-regulation of emotions and behaviours which lead to conflict with others, distress and impaired functioning.
Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD)
Angry/irritable mood, argumentative/defiant behaviour, or vindictiveness
Often directed to familiar others
Starts before 12y
Conduct Disorder (CD) Persistent behaviour which violates the basic rights of others and societal norms Includes aggression, destruction, lying and stealing Childhood-onset (< 10y); Adolescent-onset (> 10y)
Diagnosis external
Approx. 5% of children / adolescents
ODD more common than CD
Higher rates in boys than girls ( almost 2:1), particularly for CD
Peaks from 11-16 years then declines dramatically
Often co-occurs with AD/HD, depression and anxiety
Risk factors: ODD
Family stress Marital conflict Parent depression Insecure attachment Difficult temperament (genetic basis) Low self-regulation
Risk factors: Childhood-onset CD
In addition to ODD risk factors:
Genetic factors (explain 40-50% of variance)
Physical vulnerabilities prenatally or at birth
Poverty, disadvantage, urban living
Violent and abusive parents
Cognitive factors, e.g., lower intelligence, biased processing
Low arousal
Risk factors: Adolescent-onset CD
Generally milder symptoms than childhood-onset CD
Strongly associated with a deviant peer group
Also associated with certain parenting styles:
Authoritarian parenting: hostile, restrictive rules with no reasoning, harsh punishment
Permissive parenting: low monitoring, few rules
Interventions for internalising and externalising problems
Child-focused interventions, e.g., SEN support at school, medication, cognitive behaviour therapy
Parent training programmes such as Triple P
Family therapy to address the dysfunctional family
But:
Interventions can be difficult to access (limited funding)
Requires motivation and cooperation from all involved
Doesn’t address the underlying societal problems that may be contributing to dysfunction
Summary
One in eight 5- to 19-year-olds in England had a mental disorder in 2017 and has increased since.
Depressive and anxiety disorders are also known as internalising problems. More commonly diagnosed in girls than boys in adolescence and lead to an increased risk of depression and anxiety in adulthood.
Disruptive, impulse-control and conduct disorders are also known as externalising problems. More commonly diagnosed in boys than girls but rates tend to decline rapidly after 16 years. Outcomes vary depending on the type of disorder but childhood-onset conduct disorder is associated with worse outcomes than adolescent-onset conduct disorder.
Internalising and externalising problems often co-occur. Dysfunctional families and adverse socio-economic environments are risk factors, in interaction with genetics and biological factors.
The concepts of multifinality (same factors leading to different outcomes) and equifinality (different factors leading to the same disorder) make it difficult to predict whether an individual child or adolescent will experience internalising and externalising problems, and if so what type.
Atypical Development
Wide variation in rates of development
All children deviate from the norm in some aspects of development
At what point does development become atypical?
Considering only the statistical extremes is too limiting
Definition from Boyd and Bee (2013)
Atypical development is an enduring pattern of behaviour that is unusual, compared to the behaviour or others of the child’s age, and that interferes with the child’s development in some significant way.
Criteria for atypical development
Age and gender appropriateness
Intensity and frequency of child’s reactions
Persistence as the child changes developmentally
Situation specific or across contexts
Sociocultural appropriateness
Severity, number and diversity of undesirable behaviours
Type of behaviour
Change in behaviour
Life events
Association with impairment and suffering
Quantitative Behaviours
Difference in the number or severity of behaviours
Interpersonal and psychological problems
Qualitative Behaviours
Different types of behaviours, not typically observed
May be a biological cause
Developmental Psychopathology
Dominant approach to the psychological study of atypical development since the 1990s
Studies the intersection between typical and atypical development and seeks to understand developmental variation by considering multiple influences (e.g., biological, social, psychological)
Examines individual differences
Takes a lifespan perspective
Identifies risk factors and protective factors (resilience)
Expensive, longitudinal studies needed
Intellectual Disabilities
Intellectual disabilities are often called learning disabilities.
Learning disabilities are a subgroup of ‘learning difficulties’.
Learning difficulties (also called Special Educational Needs, SEN) includes everyone with a neurological, mental or physical impairment or an emotional or behavioural difficulty which prevents them from reaching their maximum potential without support.
Definition of intellectual disability
Intellectual disability involves impaired intelligence that impact adaptive functioning in three areas:
Conceptual (cognitive skills)
Social (interpersonal communication, empathy etc)
Practical (self-management)
Impaired intelligence means an IQ score is 70 or lower.
Severity is assessed according to level of adaptive functioning (rather than IQ) in DSM-5.
Must start during childhood or adolescence
Typical characteristics of impaired conceptual functioning
Slower to think and react
Struggle with abstract reasoning
Struggle with problem solving
Require more support to learn new information and new skills
Diagnosis of disorders
Approximately 2.5% of UK children (Mencap, 2021)
At risk children may be identified at birth (e.g., Down Syndrome)
Otherwise, diagnosis may take time:
Global developmental delay in pre-school years
Interventions attempted
Further investigation to rule out other conditions
Mild cases may never be formally diagnosed if they progress through school without serious behavioural or emotional problems. May receive SEN provision.
Intellectual disabilities often co-occur with other medical conditions and psychological conditions (anxiety, conduct disorders, AD/HD, autism spectrum disorder).
Causes of disorders
Chromosome and genetic abnormalities (e.g., Down Syndrome) More likely in those with a severe or profound disability
Medical problem during pregnancy or birth
Pre-natal brain damage due to poor maternal nutrition, toxins, or infections
Post-birth abnormalities due to infections, accidents, abuse or poor nutrition
Foetal alcohol syndrome
Cause often remains unknown
Contributing factors
Poverty and lower socioeconomic status are risk factors:
Poor nutrition
Mental health problems of parents
Exposure to toxins
Neglect (cognitive, emotional, physical)
Parents more likely to have a lower intelligence, poor education and/or an intellectual disability
Protective factors include:
Quality childcare and education
Support networks
Enriched home environments
Education
9 in 10 of those with a moderate disability in England attend mainstream school with some educational benefits compared to special schools.
Inclusive education may help develop social skills and independence which will be important in adulthood, but bullying is common.
8 in 10 of those with a severe or profound disability attend special schools.
Autism
A continuum of differing degrees of communication difficulties, impairments in social interaction and restricted repetitive behaviours.
Must show symptoms from early childhood
Symptoms can be expressed in diverse ways
Asperger’s Disorder (AD) is part of ASD
(Previously classified as a pervasive developmental disorder in DSM-IV)
Diagnosis of Autism
Approx. 1% of population
Ratio of males to female is currently estimated as 3:1
Certain behaviours in infancy may cause concern
But often not be diagnosed until 2 to 3 or later if language skills are good
One third also have a learning disability
Severity is based on the level of support required
Theories about causes
Impaired Theory of Mind (ToM) / Mind-blindness (Baron-Cohen, 1990) – explains struggles with processing social and emotional information but not other symptoms
Extreme male brain (Baron-Cohen, 2003) - high on systemising, low on empathising
Impaired cognitive functioning
Executive dysfunction – problems with planning, flexibility and working memory
Weak central coherence – focus on detail rather than the whole
Brain abnormalities – excess brain growth in early development
Genetics – higher rates among siblings and twins
Intervention to Autism
Designed to improve protective factors which lead to the best outcomes and reduce risk factors
Protective factors: language, intellectual ability, calm and cooperative temperament, development of a talent
Risk factors: harmful behaviours to self and others
Programmes have to be tailored to individual needs
Often requirement significant investment of time and effort (sometimes money) from parents, even when other professionals are involved
Most interventions stop at adulthood
Applied Behavioural Analysis (ABA)
Intensive intervention at home (parents, tutors) or at a school / clinic
TEACCH (Treatment and Education of Autistic and related Communication-Handicapped Children)
Visual structures to organise the teaching environment
Identify and build upon existing strengths and skills to promote development
Usually classroom based; parents are trained as well
Definition of ADHD
A persistent pattern of inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that interferences with functioning or development.
Inattention
Including easily distracted, doesn’t listen, difficulty in organising and sustaining activities, forgetful
Hyperactivity and impulsivity
Includes fidgeting, runs about and leaves seat in appropriately, interrupts, talks excessively, difficulty playing quietly
Must have at least 6 symptoms from either or both symptom lists for at least 6 months; symptoms present before age 12; symptoms present in two or more settings
Diagnosis of ADHD
Cultural differences:
2-4% of English children
8-10% of US children
Gender differences:
Ratio of male to female approx. 6:1 in England
Gender difference is greatest at primary school age
Diagnosis is likely to take place in the school years when the behaviours interfere with learning
May co-occur with other conditions such as anxiety, depression, conduct disorders, ASD
Theories about causes of ADHD
Considerable interest in finding a biological explanation. Theories include: Neurotransmission problem (e.g., poor functioning dopamine system)
Genetic inheritance - higher rates in twins and siblings
Brain structure and function Different patterns of electrical activity Smaller cerebellum (related to cognition, affect, movement and timing)
But a definitive biological cause seems unlikely due to the varied symptoms.
Contributing factors of ADHD
Risk factors:
Prenatal exposure to toxins
Maternal stress in pregnancy
Inconsistent, impulsive, disorganised parenting
Disrupted early parenting
Ongoing family disturbances
Dysfunctional emotional regulation
Exclusion from peer groups
Protective factors include:
Consistent and organised parenting
Good social relationships
Drug treatment for ADHD
Stimulant medication (e.g., Ritalin) Raises levels of dopamine and norepinephrine Improves attention and reduces noncompliance and aggression
Success of medication supports the involvement of biological factors.
But side effects are common
Behavioural intervention for ADHD
Parent training, e.g., Positive Parenting Programme (Triple P)
School interventions, e.g., structured goals and rewards
Teaching self-regulation skills
Cognitive behavioural therapy
Earlier interventions are more effective
Summaries pt2
The division between typical and atypical behaviours isn’t clear-cut. Behaviours may be unusual and enduring but they have to be interfering with the child’s development to be classed as atypical.
Developmental psychopathology seeks to understand multiple interacting factors which affect developmental variation (from typical to atypical) across the lifespan. A key aim is to understand risk factors and protective factors.
Intellectual disabilities, Autism Spectrum Disorder and Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder are classed as neurodevelopmental disorders in DSM-5.
The symptoms of neurodevelopmental disorders are evident from early in life but diagnosis may take some time.
There is no single cause but theories focus on interactions between biological, social and psychological factors.
Changes to the child’s environment may promote more positive outcomes in the longer-term by improving the ability of the child and the family to cope.
William James’ (1890) view of the self
“I-self” Self as an agent Thinks and feels Separate from others Continuous identity Subjective self
“Me-self”
Self as an object
Observed and evaluated by others
Objective Self
Self-concept:
an individual’s awareness of the self
Self-image
includes self-recognition, self-consciousness, self-definition
Self-esteem
Ideal self
Agency
one’s ability to control certain events in the world.
An understanding of agency develops through interaction with the physical environment.
From 2 months: Joy and interest when in control of a stimulus, anger if control is removed.
Understanding of the self or just an automatic response?
Social interactions
Infants also learn about agency from social interactions.
Their behaviour influences others in predictable ways:
Crying = comfort Smiles = playful exchanges
Self vs others
New-borns demonstrate the rooting reflex in response to another’s touch but not to own touch.
Innate understanding or just a reflex?
Self vs other distinction is also evident in separation anxiety from around 8 months.
Helps lay the foundation for attachment (→ Year 2 content).
Flavell et al. (1980)
Interviewed 3- to 4-year-olds (n = 22)
Location of the self
Where is the part of you that knows your name and thinks about things?
Where do you do your thinking and knowing?
Visibility of the self (n = 14)
If I look here, at your (stomach/nose/foot/eyes), do I see the part of you that knows and thinks?
No = 9
Yes = 5 but further questions suggest otherwise
Further questions (n = 5), e.g., Can I see you thinking? No Even if I look in your eyes, do I see you thinking? No. Why not? Cause I don’t have any big holes.
Mental states of self and others
The understanding that mental states are invisible to others helps lay the foundations for theory of mind
Theory of mind is a more sophisticated understanding of the mental states of self and others (4 years +):
Others can have different perspectives and beliefs
Can be used to predict and explain behaviour.
New-borns can imitate facial expressions (e.g. Meltzoff & Moore, 1977).
Also prefer to look at faces rather than other stimuli.
Suggests that infants seem to have an innate understanding that ‘others are like me’.
But some argue it could just be an automatic response.
Mirror self-recognition
Towards the end of the second year, children show signs of recognising themselves in the mirror.
Mirror Self-Recognition Test (Rouge Test)
Child observed in front of mirror
Mother wipes face and applies a red mark
Observe mark-directed and mirror-directed behaviours
Mark-directed = recognition of change to self
Michael Lewis: Key researcher
Highly influential in advancing knowledge of children’s development of the self.
Classic mirror self-recognition studies: Lewis, M. & Brooks-Gunn, J. (1979) Social cognition and acquisition of the self. Springer.
Mirror self-recognition
Some of Michael Lewis’s findings:
Most children recognise themselves in the mirror between 21- to 24-months-old.
Self-recognition correlates with personal pronoun use and pretend play (mental state understanding).
Linked to brain maturation
Conclusion: a fundamental change in the objective self at 2 years.
Povinelli et al. (1996) Experiment 1
A large sticker was covertly placed in the child’s hair during a video-recorded game.
Delayed video images seem to make the test harder to pass (no synchrony between image and current self)
Video could have caused distraction and embarrassment, interfering with answers.
Povinelli et al. (1996) – Experiment 2
Added a condition with verbal prompts
Who is that?, What is that?, Where is that sticker really? Can you find where that sticker really is?
Confirms a development lag in self-recognition from delayed images
Those who failed were given the mirror test and nearly always passed.
Reaching for the sticker was related to referring to their photo image as ‘me’
Younger children more likely to use name and refer to ‘his/her head’ or ‘the head’ – disassociation between current self and image of self.
Conclusion: A more complex understanding of the self as having a continuous existence develops around 4 years old.
Self-conscious emotions
Emerge between 18 months to 3 years: Embarrassment Empathy Pride Guilt Shame
Lewis et al. (1989)
20- to 24-month-olds (n = 44) Observed embarrassed behaviours during: Mirror self-recognition Overcomplimenting Request to dance Relation between embarrassment and self-recognition
Self-definition
As children’s language skills develop, they are able to represent and express the self more fully.
Harter (2012) argues that children’s increasingly complex sense of self is largely a social construction based on the observations and evaluations of important others:
Direct evaluations, e.g., “You’re so good at maths”
Indirect influences arise from the way the child is treated by others.
Susan Harter
Ground-breaking researcher into the self-concept
Developed widely used scales
Conducted many interviews with children
Integrated social and cognitive perspectives of the self
40 + years of research summarised in her 2012 book: The construction of the self: Developmental and social cultural foundations.
Self-definition: 3- to 4-years-old
The self is defined by concrete observable characteristics: Physical appearance Family Physical behaviours Expressed emotions Preferences Possessions
Definitions are overly positive due to belief that they can be what they want to be.
Summaries of Self
New-borns capacity to distinguish their own touch from another’s touch and to imitate facial expressions could indicate an innate understanding of the self, though this is debated.
Regardless of any innate basis, infants have many opportunities in their first few months to learn about the self through interaction with their physical and social environments.
Mirror self-recognition studies provide experimental evidence of a fundamental change in the development of the objective self at around 2-years-old. Growing awareness of the self-image coincides with the development of self-referential language and leads to self-conscious emotions.
Summaries Self extended
A more complex awareness of the objective self is achieved by 4 years. Delayed recognition studies demonstrate that 4-year-olds but not 3-year-olds understand the continuous existence of the self (‘me’).
As children’s vocabulary expands at 3- to 4-years-old, they can be questioned about the self and they seem to understand that the thoughts of the subjective self are invisible to others.
Children’s self-definitions are a further step in the development of the objective self, and pre-schoolers focus on describing their concrete observable characteristics when explaining who they are.
Middle childhood (8- to 11-years)
Self-definitions are influenced by social comparison and social status
More balanced evaluation of strengths and weaknesses compared to when younger
But can lead to feelings of inferiority and low self-esteem
Growing awareness of how their behaviours exemplify stable aspects of their character
E.g. being nice and keeping secrets are part of being a popular, friendly person
Focus on describing characteristics and behaviours which relate to their peer relationships
Early adolescence (11-15 years)
Increasing concern over social competence and acceptance by peers
Self-definitions include more abstract characteristics, such as personality and intelligence.
Aware of multiple selves, i.e. they are different depending on who they are with.
But may struggle to integrate these selves into a coherent whole, resulting in uncertainty and internal conflict
Later adolescence (16 -19 years)
Develop a more integrated concept of the self based on abstract personality traits and internalised values, beliefs and standards.
Think about their future self
Less concerned about what others think of them and by contradictions and inconsistencies
Support from others helps adolescents to understand their self-concept and to be comfortable with who they are.
Identity Crisis
Erik Erikson developed a theory of psychosocial development from infancy to adolescence.
Each stage has a crisis to be resolved. Unresolved crises lead to continuing struggles throughout life.
He believed the crisis of adolescents to be an identity crisis (Erikson, 1968).
Identity Statuses
According to James Marcia (1980) identity formation involves two dimensions:
Exploration of potential identities and re-examination of old choices and values (similar to crisis)
Commitment to an identity
4 different identity statuses are possible
Identity Statuses Extended
Identity achievement
Potential identities have been explored. Commitment to one coherent identity.
Moratorium
Exploration is in progress but no commitment has been made
Identity foreclosure
No exploration. Commitment to an identity based on parental or cultural expectations.
Identity diffusion
Not concerned about exploring their identity, despite the lack of a coherent identity.
Some research findings
Identity status often fluctuates over adolescence and young adulthood:
36% progress; 15% regress; 49% remain stable
Identity achievement happens later than Erikson thought:
1 in 3 achieve this by 22 years; 1 in 2 by 36 years
Identity achievement is linked to better mental health and more positive social outcomes.
Those with warm and supportive parents tend to show higher identity commitment.
Very broad explorations in moratorium status relate to neuroticism.
Self-Esteem
Self-esteem is a global evaluation of one’s worth and the feelings surrounding that evaluation.
Starts to emerge around 8 years old
Measured by questionnaire
E.g. Harter’s Self-Perception Profiles for Children and Adolescents
Self-Perception Profile for Children (Harter, 2012b)
Children’s evaluation of their competence in different domains Scholastic competence Social competence Athletic competence Physical appearance Behavioural conduct
Global self-worth – how much the child likes himself or herself overall
Importance of the different domains (optional)
Adolescent version includes domains of job competence, romantic appeal and close friendships
Self-Perception Profile for Children (Harter, 2012b) Continued
Format was designed to reduce socially desirable responses
First, child participant first decides what kind of child they are most like (left or right-side).
Second, they decide how much they are like this kind of child
Sources of self-esteem
Two main sources according to Susan Harter:
Discrepancy between real self and ideal self
Approval and support from others
Both factors interact to predict self-esteem.
Contributions to self-esteem
Age
Tends to be high in childhood and lower / more unstable in early adolescence
Rises again in later adolescence / early adulthood
Gender
Boys have higher overall self-esteem and rate themselves as more athletic and more physically attractive.
Girls rate themselves higher in behavioural conduct and close friendships.
No difference in perceived academic competence
Differences arise from gender stereotypes
Summaries of Self Extended 2
Over the course of middle childhood and into early adolescence, self-definitions gradually focus less on concrete observable characteristics and more on evaluations of social competence and abstract traits.
Older adolescents tend to become less concerned with social comparisons and place more importance on their beliefs and values.
Erikson’s idea of an adolescent identity crisis was further developed by Marcia into four different identity statuses based around identity exploration and identity commitment.
Identity achievement can be a slow process, extending well beyond adolescence and into adulthood.
Self Summaries Extended 3
Self-esteem is a global evaluation of one’s worth which starts to emerge around 8-years-old.
It is affected by the perceived discrepancy between the real self and the ideal self. The notion of the ideal self develops from the values that children internalise from their parents, peers, and their wider social and cultural environment.
Social acceptance by parents and peers also influences children’s self-esteem.
Terminology of Sex and Gender
Sex: the biological aspects of maleness or femaleness
Gender: the condition of being male, female or neuter, when considered with reference to the psychological, behavioural, social and cultural aspects of being male or female (i.e., masculinity or femininity).
Gender concept: an understanding of the socially constructed distinctions between male and female, based on biological sex but also including the roles and expectations for males and females in a culture.
Gender identity: a person’s psychological sense of their gender; an inherent sense of being a boy, a man, or male; a girl, a woman, or female; or a nonbinary or alternative gender that may or may not correspond to a person’s sex assigned at birth.
Gender role / sex role: behaviours, attitudes, values and beliefs etc which a particular society expects from males and females on the basis of their biological sex.
Gender typing / sex typing: the process by which children acquire a gender identity and learn gender appropriate behaviours.
Conceptual development
From early infancy, children sort objects into categories (e.g. people vs animals vs inanimate objects)
Concepts are mental representations of categories and include information about the typical properties of members of the category.
Allows inferences to be made about a new member of a category.
With experience, category hierarchies develop and concepts become more detailed.
Concept of Gender
Basic gender concept in young children:
People can be categorised by gender.
Membership of a category remains constant over time, regardless of appearance.
Gender role concepts:
Typical roles for each gender, including appearance, feelings, behaviours, personality
Kohlberg’s (1966) Cognitive Developmental Theory
A theory about how the understanding of gender develops in early childhood:
Children actively learn about gender by observing and interacting with their world.
Changes in understanding are evident across three stages:
Gender identity (2 – 3 years)
Categorise self and others as boy or girl
Don’t believe that gender is permanent
Gender stability (3 – 4 years)
Gender remains stable over time
But appearance still causes confusion (e.g., clothes, hair)
Gender constancy (5 – 6 years) Gender is invariant across situations
Once gender constancy is understood, children seek to observe and imitate same-gender role models.
Gender identity
The ability to label gender seems to emerge slightly earlier than Kohlberg predicted but it becomes well-established between 2 and 3 years.
Parental diaries and video observations:
68% of 21-month-olds use gender labels in everyday life (Zosuls et al., 2009).
Pointing studies
Point to the picture of the boy/ girl
67% of 24- to 28-month-olds can label their own gender and 54% can label other children’s gender (Campbell et al., 2002).
Gender identity emerges at around the same time as growing self-awareness and mirror self-recognition.
Gender stability
By 4 years, children tend to understand stability but not constancy
Slaby & Frey’s (1975) questions are widely used to stages: Stability and Constancy
Trautner et al. (2003)
Studied 3- to 9-year-olds performance on gender constancy tasks and appearance-reality tasks.
By 5 years, nearly all children passed both tasks.
Gender constancy develops alongside the ability to distinguish appearance from reality (an aspect of theory of mind).
Evaluation of Kohlberg’s theory
Support:
Research supports the three developmental stages
Stages link to other aspects of cognitive development
Limits:
Only considers early development
Genital knowledge was neglected but may help achieve gender constancy (Bem, 1989)
Doesn’t explain why stereotypical behaviours emerge before gender constancy
Dated perspective: How do children understand the complexities of the gender concept in modern culture?
Transgender children’s understanding of gender: (Olson and Gűlgőz, 2018)
Longitudinal study of transgender children; 3 to 12 years at start
Identification with current gender equally as strong for transgender and cisgender children
Acknowledged a change in their gender identity since infancy
But expected gender stability for the self and others going forward
Unlike cisgender children, acknowledged that occasionally gender can change
Gender role stereotyping: Household tasks
Poulin-Dubois et al. (2002)
24-month-olds (n = 43)
Children asked to imitate activities with a doll and props
Choice of male or female gender-typed doll
Only girls doll choices reflected an awareness of gender stereotyping at 24 months
Over two-thirds were exposed to the stereotyped activities at home.
At 31 months, boys choices reflected awareness of masculine activities.
Overall conclusion: 2-year-olds are aware of gender stereotypes for household activities.
Gender role stereotyping: Occupations
Occupational stereotypes are established at 3- to 4-years old.
Relatively recent studies continue to find evidence of stereotypical beliefs, e.g.,
3- to 6-year-old girls (but not boys) say that only girls can be teachers and nurses and only boys can be police officers.
Men perceived to have higher status jobs than women.
8- to 9-year-olds struggle to process male names in feminine occupations compared to stereotypical pairings or female names in masculine occupations.
Stereotypicality of mothers’ work is associated with daughters’ beliefs and aspirations.
Interventions to expose children to counter-stereotypical role models reduce stereotypical beliefs, at least in the short term.
Gender role stereotypes: Personality and emotion
Parmley and Cunningham (2008)
4- to 6-year-olds (n = 70) were asked to label the emotion of a character in vignettes
More likely to perceive the male character as angry and the female character as sad.
Todd et al. (2017)
Observed children’s toy preferences in a nursery without adult input (n = 101).
Gender-typed toy preferences were found in the youngest group (9-17 months) and were strongest in the oldest age group (24 – 32 months).
Gender Summary
Research supports Kohlberg’s (1966) Cognitive Developmental Theory about three stages of gender understanding in early childhood: gender identity, gender stability, gender constancy.
Kohlberg’s theory doesn’t explain the very early emergence of gender role stereotypes and gender-typed behaviours, sometimes even before children can reliably identify their own gender.
Children develop gender role stereotypes at a young age, including stereotypes about household tasks (from 2), occupations (from 3 to 4), and personality and emotions (from 5 to 9). These beliefs are particularly rigid between 5 to 7 years then become more flexible.
Gender Summary pt2
Children exhibit gender-typed behaviours during play with toys from as young as 1 and gender-typed play remains throughout childhood (although individual differences exist). A strong preference for same-gender peers reinforces gender-typed behaviours.
In adolescence, stereotyped gender role beliefs and behaviours either intensify or become more flexible.
And finally, remember that research studies identify dominant developmental patterns and individual differences do exist.
Bobo Doll Experiments
Bandura argued that children can learn rapidly from observation of others.
Summary Gender Pt3
Social learning theory (also known as social cognitive theory) explains children’s gender development and functioning as being constructed from social experiences (observation of models, enacted experience, tuition), cognitive processes (attention and retention), motivational processes (reinforcement and self-sanctioning), and behavioural processes (feedback and adjustment).
Gender schema theory focuses on how children create mental representations of gender-related information. These mental representations are thought to directly motivate behaviour.
Biological approaches have found evidence that hormone exposure in early life has some relation to later gender-typed behaviours, but much more needs to be understood about how hormones influences early parent-child relationships and brain development.
Brim et al. (2004)
found that 40 – 60 year olds felt more in control and expressed greater well-being than with previous decade.
