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Psychology Semester 1 > Individual Differences > Flashcards

Individual Differences Flashcards

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1
Q

General rules of human behaviour

A
  • Psychology generates general rules of human behaviour
  • Try and understand how most people will behave
  • Interested in explanations that apply to more than one person
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2
Q

Limitations on general rules of human behaviour

A
  • Need to know how people differ as well how they are alike
  • Average behaviour
  • Variability of behaviours
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3
Q

Limitations - Average behaviours

A
  • Any single individual may not behave like this

- Rules alone will not tell us much about specific people

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4
Q

Limitations - Variability

A
  • Meaning we might lose the richness of human behaviour
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5
Q

Individual Differences: Aims

A
  • To study how people differ from each other
  • Looks at variance or range of responses
  • Explains how and why people respond differently to each other
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6
Q

Explaining peoples behaviour

A
  • Sometimes situations are better at explaining people’s behaviour than personality
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7
Q

Munstedt & Muhkhans (2013)

A
  • Fear of wasps, bees and spiders may be partly related to personality
  • People who are more afraid of these have higher scores of Neuroticism and lower scores for openness
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8
Q

Differential psychologists

A
  • Seek to identify general factors underlying individuality (apply to everyone)
  • Develop theories for explain/predicting differences and similarities in thought, emotion and behaviour
  • Aim to explain HOW and WHY people are difference from one another
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9
Q

How are we different?

A
  • Personality
  • Intelligence
  • Sense of Humour
  • Appearance
  • Abilities
  • Interests
  • Language
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10
Q

Everyday understanding of personality

A
  • Fairly fixed or immutable: unlike mood or situational responses which can change
  • Enduring or stable: consistent across the lifespan
  • Differing among individual in population: each of us differs from the next person in our personality
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11
Q

Personality definition main points

A
  • Internal and causal
  • Long-lasting
  • Explains why we behave the way we do in most situations
  • Does not vary a lot within a person, but can vary a lot from onw person to another (explains difference)
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12
Q

Defining personality

A
  • Hypothetical construct: cannot be directly observed and we infer its existence from observations of behaviour that we assume is related to personality
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13
Q

Evidence for defining personality

A
  • Is something we construct, think about cultural differences
  • Cultures: happy, serious, responsible attribute to different values
  • Theories make different claims about the nature of personality
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14
Q

Personality consider

A
  • Nomothetic

- Idiographic

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15
Q

Nomothetic

A
  • TRAITS
  • Personalities can be described in term of pre-defined criteria
  • Which are present in every individual
  • What differs between people is the strength of those traits
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16
Q

Idiographic

A
  • TYPES
  • Personalities are uniquely constructed across individuals
  • No common character traits to compare people on
  • There are different groups which people either belong to or don’t
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17
Q

Difference between trait and type

A
  • TRAIT: shared categories but differ in strength

- TYPE: either belong or you don’t

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18
Q

Personality research

A
  • Interested in figuring out what things are dispositional and what things are situational
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19
Q

Dispositional

A
  • Behaviour is driven by internal, consistent dispositions

- Attempts to explain people’s behaviour by their personality traits

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20
Q

Situational

A
  • Behaviour is driven by external. variable factors (i,e. situations in the environment)
  • Attempts to explain people’s behaviour by their environment
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21
Q

Trait V State

A
  • Trait: Dispositional, long-term (introverts)

- State: Situational, short-term (hungry)

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22
Q

Traits - lifespan

A
  • Fairly stable

- although may be expressed in different ways

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23
Q

States

A
  • Variable and determined by the environment
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24
Q

Personality traits - psychologist

A
  • Argue that personality is based on traits rather than types
  • Nomothetic view instead of an idiographic approach
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25
Q

Differential psychology

A
  • Concerned with individual differences (i.e. the variation rather than the average)
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26
Q

Psychologists usually define personality

A
  • Stable dimensions which affect behaviour throughout the lifespan
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27
Q

Personality research interested in

A
  • Sorting influence of traits (dispositional) from states (situational)
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28
Q

The Four Humors

A
  • Hippocrates and Galen
  • Believed liquids in the body determined one’s mood and personality (i.e. biological basis for behaviour)
  • Excesses of Humors cause mood shifts
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29
Q

State the 4 humors

A
  • Phlegmatic
  • Choleric
  • Sanguine
  • Melancholic
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30
Q

Phlegmatic

A
  • Phlegm

- Calm, relaxed, slow

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31
Q

Choleric

A
  • Yellow bile

- Aggressive, tense, impulsive

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32
Q

Sanguine

A
  • Blood

- Enthusiastic, optimistic

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33
Q

Melancholic

A
  • Black bile
  • Sad, reflective
  • More of an idiographic approach
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34
Q

The 4 humors attempt

A
  • To describe people’s dispositions and create different categories of individuals
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35
Q

Physiognomy

A
  • Lavater (1775)
  • Art of reading people’s faces to determine their personality
  • Darwin: outline of peoples features
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36
Q

Phrenology

A
  • Gall, 1758-1828

- Modulation of children’s skulls

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37
Q

Common findings until 1800s

A
  • Humorism
  • Physiognomy
  • Phrenology
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38
Q

Psychodynamic approach

A
  • Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
  • ‘Conversion hysteria’: physical symptoms with no obvious cause. worked on it in Paris
  • Theorised that symptoms were result of suppressed, pionful, memories (usually sexual or aggressive) based on hypnosis, free association and dream analysis
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39
Q

Freud’s theory of personality

A
  • Believed personality is a system of energy that presses for release:
  • ID
  • EGO
  • SUPEREGO
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40
Q

Freud’s theory: ID

A
  • Instincts and drives, source of all psychic energy, unconscious, core of personality, pleasure principle (present from birth)
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41
Q

Freud’s theory: EGO

A
  • Executive part of personality, conscious level, mediates the urges of the ID against the rules of the SUPEREGO (planning, thinking), emerges in the first few years of life
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42
Q

Freud’s theory: SUPEREGO

A
  • Internalised morals of society, developed by around 4 or 5 years
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43
Q

ID + EGO + SUPEREGO interact and create conflict

A
  • Results in anxiety
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44
Q

Defence mechanisms of personality examples

A
  • Denial
  • Isolation
  • Repression
  • Regression
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45
Q

Evaluation of Freudian Theory

A
  • Data on which theory was based not rigorous
  • Theory was based a lot on metaphors
  • Unconscious influences on behaviour
  • Defence mechanisms
  • ‘Psychic energy’: vague making it hard to test (bad for science)
  • His background on neurological seemed to try and give simplistic account of the mind that matched physical structure
  • Overall: theories claimed too much on too little dtat
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46
Q

Evaluation of Freudian Theory: Data on which theory was based not rigorous

A
  • Sketchy case notes
  • Small number of individual case studies
  • Not representative of general population
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47
Q

Evaluation of Freudian Theory: Theory was based a lot on metaphors

A
  • Much of interpretation of data is retrospective

- Quite difficult to be wrong

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48
Q

Evaluation of Freudian Theory: Unconscious influences on behaviour

A
  • Unconscious processing of information (e.g. subliminal perception)
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49
Q

Evaluation of Freudian Theory: Defence mechanisms

A
  • Cognitive mechanism exclude or defer unwanted information from consciousness (cognitive avoidance/dissonance reduction)
  • Similar to repression
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50
Q

Evaluation of Freudian Theory: Contribution that isn’t contentious

A
  • Talking helps!

- As a theory, psychoanalysis had a lot of issues but as a method, it was revolutionary

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51
Q

Jungian Theory

A
  • Carl Jung (1875-1961)

- Developed ideas such as the collective unconscious, archetypes, and extraversion/intraversion

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52
Q

Jungian archetypes

A
  • Devil
  • Hero
  • Trickster
  • Mother
  • Wise old man
  • Tower
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53
Q

Jungian Personality

A
  • Developed a theory of personality which has become more wide-spread
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54
Q

Jungian Personality: ‘types’

A
  • 16 different ‘types’ based on assumptions that we are either:
    > Extraverted or introverted
    > Sensing or intuitive
    > Thinking or feeling
    > Judging or perceiving (adding by Briggs and Meyers)
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55
Q

Jungian Personality: 16 types

A
  • Attempted to classify the majority of individuals using these dimensions
  • Mix of nomothetic and idiographic approaches: everyone is somewhere on the 4 different spectrums, but you class people as one of 16 types
  • Vast majority of people should be classifiable under the 16 types
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56
Q

Myers-Briggs Test

A
  • WW2 developed
  • Wanted to assign women to jobs best suited to their personality
  • Not scientifically validated however used in organisations and settings
  • Usually relies on binary choices (extravert or not)
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57
Q

Myers-Briggs Test: 4 letter type

A 
- The combination of your position on the four different dimensions gives you a 4 letter 'type' ENFJ
> Extraverted
> Intuitive
> Feeling
> Judging
58
Q

Barnum effect

A
  • When people feel that a general personality statement is somehow accurately describing their own unique self
  • Various qualities make statements more likely to be perceived as accurate descriptions
59
Q

Dickson & Kelly 1985

A
  • Said that statements should be favourable, vague and double-headed
  • i.e. referring to variability
60
Q

Sheldon’s (1899-1977): somatotypes

A
  • Endomorph
  • Mesomorph
  • Ectomorph
61
Q

Sheldon’s (1899-1977): Endomorph (fat)

A
  • Sociable
  • Peaceful
  • Tolerant
62
Q

Sheldon’s (1899-1977): Mesomorph (sporty)

A
  • Assertive
  • Proactive
  • Vigorous
63
Q

Sheldon’s (1899-1977): Ectomorph (skinny

A
  • Insecure
  • Sensitive
  • Quiet
64
Q

Somatotypes

A
  • Basing what you are like off your body type
65
Q

Types A & B (personality)

A
  • Gave people binary questions to say whether or not they agreed with something
  • Yes or no
66
Q

Type A personality

A
  • Highly strung, ambitious, rigidly organised, sensitive, truthful, impatient
  • (increased risk of heart disease)
67
Q

Type B personality

A
  • Works steadily, lower stress, doesn’t mind losing, creative
68
Q

The Trait Approach

A
  • Hans Eysenck (1916-1997)

- 1947: 2 dimensions

69
Q

The Trait Approach: 2 Dimensions

A
  • Extravert —–> Introvert
  • Neurotic ——> Emotionally stable
  • Everyone is somewhere on these dimensions (i.e. nomothetic)
70
Q

The Trait Approach

Neuroticism

A
  • Scheier, Carver & Bridges, 1994
  • A multi-faceted construct of negative affect:
    > involves pessimism, self-doubt, unstable, emotional states, and worry
71
Q

The Gigantic 3 (1957,67,91)

A
  • Neuroticism
  • Extraversion
  • Psychoticism (1970s)
72
Q

The Gigantic 3

Psychometric instruments:

A
  • Muadsley Medical Questionnaire (MMQ)

- Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI)

73
Q

The Gigantic 3

Theoretically orthogonal/independent traits:

A
  • Scores on one trait do not indicate how a person will score on another trait
  • Complete description of an individual requires information on all 3 traits
  • Nothing else is needed to fully describe all aspects of a given individual
74
Q

Biological Basis of Gigantic 3

A
  • Eysenck
    >Reticulo-cortical system (in brain stem)
    >Reticulo-limbic system (in visceral area i.e. forebrain)
75
Q

Biological Basis of Gigantic 3: Eysenck

A

Traits stable throughout life, so likely to be inherited

76
Q

Biological Basis of Gigantic 3: Reticulo-cortical system

A
  • Controls cortical arousal

- Introverts experience greater arousal here

77
Q

Biological Basis of Gigantic 3: Reticulo-limbic system

A
  • Controls responses to emotional stimuli

- Neurotics experience greater arousal here

78
Q

Biological causes of Gigantic 3

A
  • Brains sensitivity to stimulation
  • Baseline level of arousal differs across individuals
  • Reticular activating system (RAS) is responsible for differences
79
Q

Biological causes of Gigantic 3: RAS

A
  • Reticular activating system
  • Is a “relay station” for incoming sensory impulses
  • Alerts or wakes up cortex to tell it about incoming stimuli
80
Q

Sub-divisions of the RAS: Extraversion

A
  • Determines arousability
  • Inhibition or excitation of cerebral cortex:
    > Motivation, emotion, conditioning
  • Introverts are more aroused than extraverts
    > Extraverts = sensation seekers
    > Introverts = sensation avoiders

social competence ≠ extraversion

81
Q

Sub-divisions of the RAS: Neuroticism

A
  • Reticulo-limbic system generates activation perceived as arousal, induced by emotional stimuli
  • If limbic system very active > experience intense emotion (esp anxiety)
82
Q

Neuroticism is

A
  • Relationship between excitability and emotional responsiveness
83
Q

Psychoticism

A
  • Differences driven by testosterone
    > Leads to breaks with reality
    > High psychoticism characterised by ‘tough mindedness’, egocentrism, creativity, lack of empathy, anti-social behaviour
84
Q

Evaluation of Eysenck’s Theory

A
  • Good empirical support of N and E
  • Details of brain mechanisms are weak
  • Theory a little too parsimonious
85
Q

Evaluation of Eysenck’s Theory: Good empirical support of N and E

A
  • Evidence of predictive value

- Across-cultures, suggesting they many be “universal”

86
Q

Evaluation of Eysenck’s Theory: Details of brain mechanisms are weak

A
  • Brain mechanisms do not work in such a simplistic way, but involved large and complex networks of structures
87
Q

Evaluation of Eysenck’s Theory: Theory too parsimonious

A
  • Are 3 factors enough to capture all personality variability
88
Q

Historically, personality was typically viewed

A
  • As ‘types’
  • Sanguine versus melancholic
  • A versus B
89
Q

Psychodynamic approaches view personality

A
  • As a product of developmental conflict between mind structures, but had a little empirical support
90
Q

Trait approaches propose

A
  • That personality is the product of a combination of ‘traits’ on which we all vary
91
Q

Big 5

A
  • Costa & McCrae, 1985

- Description classification of personality based on lexical hypothesis (trait words will distinguish between people)

92
Q

Name the Big 5

A
  • Extraversion
  • Neuroticism
  • Openness to experience
  • Agreeableness
  • Conscientiousness
93
Q

How the Big 5 were selected

A
  • 1, 431 major descriptors
  • 75 fundamental adjectives - - Data reduction
  • Big 5
94
Q

Neuroticism

A
  • Anxiety
  • Angry
  • Hostility
  • Depression
95
Q

Extraversion

A
  • Warmth
  • Assertiveness
  • Activity
  • Positive emotions
96
Q

Openness to experience

A
  • Fantasy
  • Ideas
  • Values
  • Aesthetics
97
Q

Agreeableness

A
  • Trust
  • Tender Mindedness
  • Modesty
  • Compliance
98
Q

Conscientiousness

A
  • Order
  • Self-discipline
  • Achievement-striving
  • Competence
99
Q

The Big 5 structure

A
  • Similar to Eysenck’s Gigantic 3 (including neuroticism {original trait})
  • Uses more dimensions to capture more details about the way people act and think
100
Q

The Big 5 Taxonomy

A
  • 4 lines of reasoning and evidence support fundamental nature of the Big 5:
    > Enduring dispositions, observable in behaviour (longitudinal and cross-observer studies)
    > Traits are found in a variety of personality systems and in the natural language of trait descriptions
    > Found in different age, sex, race and language groups
    > Heritability evidence suggest biological basis of all 5
101
Q

The Big 5 abbreviated

A
  • OCEAN or NEOAC
102
Q

The Big 5 Taxonomy

Allik & McCrae (2002)

A
  • Knowledge about personality traits can only be inferred from asking questions about habits, attitudes, preferences and social skills
  • (i.e. characteristic adaptations)
103
Q

Criticisms of Big 5

A
  • Lack of theory as to where differences in conscientiousness, agreeableness and openness stem from
  • Some evidence for inter-correlations between traits
104
Q

Big 5 predict anything useful;

A
  • Barrick & Mount (1998) used it to examine job performance (meta-analysis)
  • Criteria
    > Job proficiency
    > Training proficiency
    > Personnel data
- Jobs:
> Professionals
> Police
> Managers
> Sales
> Skilled/semi-skilled
105
Q

Barrick & Mount (1998): Results

A
  • CONSCIENTIOUSNESS
    > related with job performance for all groups
  • EXTRAVERSION
    > valid predictor for all criteria for sales and management (i.e. jobs focusing on interactions with others)
  • OPENNESS TO EXPERIENCE
    > predicted success on training proficiency only
    > perhaps ‘training ready’
  • NEUROTICISM
    > did not correlate strongly with job performance
    > suggest possible self-selection
    > or a non-linear relationship
  • AGREEABLENESS
    > was not a strong predictor of job performance (unlike extraversion)
106
Q

The Big 5 and Health

A
  • Extraversion moderate predictor of positive affect
  • Neuroticism strong predictor of negative affect & linked to internalising disorders
    > sensitivity of extraverts and neurotics to rewards and punishments
    > extraverts experience more frequent positive life events, and vice versa doe neurotics
107
Q

Validating the Big 5

A
  • Vassend and Skrondal (2011)

> used factor analysis to evaluate how well the five-factor model explained questionnaire data for 856 people

108
Q

Validating the Big 5 results

A
  • Good validity was found on the whole

- Extraversion and Agreeableness actually had multiple components

109
Q

Big 5 are argued

A
  • To be biologically based

- Largely affected by one’s upbringing

110
Q

Evidence supporting Big 5

A
  • Across all cultures and throughout lifespan

- Although some of the factors are more complex than others

111
Q

Your theory about personality will affect

A
  • How you determine whether something is clinically “abnormal”
112
Q

NHS defines personality disorders as

A
  • ‘mental health conditions that affect how people manage their feelings and how they relate to other people’
  • ‘behaves or relates to others very differently to the average person’
113
Q

Difference between mental health problems and a personality disorder

A
  • Personality disorders are the product of the way that a person inherently interacts with the world around them
114
Q

Causes and criteria of a personality disorder

A 
- Combination of
> Genetics
> Childhood trauma 
> Verbal abuse
> High sensitivity
> Peers
115
Q

Essential features of a personality disorder

A
  • Impairments in personality (self and interpersonal) functioning and the presence of pathological personality traits
116
Q

To count as a disorder

A
  • Usually have to causes problems with the way you live your life
  • They interfere with your ability to eat, sleep, do your work, make friends
  • Tied to the ways you relate to others and yourself
117
Q

Traits defining a personality disorder are pathological:

A
  • Excessive
    > displayed greater than in most people e.g. risk taking
  • Harmful
    > social isolation, physical violence, law-breaking, death
118
Q

2 Types of disorders studied

A
  • Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD)

- Antisocial Personality Disorder (Psychopathy) (ASPD)

119
Q

BDP: criteria that must be met

A
  • Significant impairments in personality functioning

- Pathological personality traits

120
Q

BDP: Significant impairments in personality functioning

A
  • Impairments in self functioning

- Impairments in interpersonal functioning

121
Q

BDP: Impairments in self functioning either

A
  • Identity: Markedly impoverished, poorly developed

- Self-direction: Instability in goals, aspirations, values, or career plans

122
Q

BDP: Impairments in interpersonal functioning either

A
  • Empathy:
    > cant recognise feelings and needs for others
    > prone to feel slighted or insulted
    > views of others are biased towards negative attributes
  • Intimacy:
    > Intense, unstable and conflicted close relationships
    > neediness and anxious of abandonment
    > close relationships viewed in extremes of idealisation and devaluations
123
Q

BDP: Pathological personality traits

A
  • Negative Affectivity
  • Disinhibition
  • Antagonism
124
Q

BDP: Pathological personality traits: Negative Affectivity

A
  • Emotional lability
    > mood changes
    > unstable emotional experiences
    > out of proportion to events
  • Anxiousness
    > intense feelings of nervousness
  • fear of losing control
    > worry about negative effects past and future
  • Separation insecurity
    > fears of rejection from significant others
    > fears of excessive dependency
  • Depressivity
    > frequently feeling down
    > suicidal behaviour
    > hopeless
125
Q

BDP: Pathological personality traits: Disinhibition

A
  • Impulsivity
    > acting on the spur of the moment
    > difficultly follow plans
    > self harm under emotional destress
  • Risk taking
    > Engagement in dangerous activities
    > no concern over limitations
    > denial of personal danger
126
Q

BDP: Pathological personality traits: Antagonism

A
  • Hostility
    > persistent or frequent angry feelings
  • Anger/irritability
    > in response to minor slights and insults
127
Q

BDP the impairments in personality functioning

A
  • Stable across time and consistent across situations
  • Not better understood as normative for the individual’s development stage or socio-cultural environment
  • Not solely due to the direct physiological effects of a substance or a general medical condition
128
Q

BDP Overview

A
  • Over-represented in prison populations
  • Particularly in women
  • Associated with a history of childhood abuse, impulsive and violent crimes and antisocial traits
129
Q

ASPD (Psychopathy): criteria that must be met

A
  • Significant impairments in personality functioning

- Pathological personality

130
Q

ASPD (Psychopathy): Significant impairments in personality functioning

A
  • Impairments in self functioning

- Impairments in interpersonal functioning

131
Q

ASPD (Psychopathy): Impairments in self functioning (either)

A
  • Identify
    > ego-centrism
    > self-esteem derived from personal gain
    > power or pleasure
  • Self-direction
    > Goal-setting based on personal gratification
  • no prosocial internal standards connected to failure
132
Q

ASPD (Psychopathy): Impairments in interpersonal functioning (either)

A
  • Empathy
    > lack of concern for feelings, needs, suffering of others
    > lack of remorse after hurting or mistreating another

Intimacy
> incapacity for mutually intimate relationships
> use of dominance or intimidation to control others

133
Q

ASPD (Psychopathy): Pathological personality traits

A
  • Antagonism

- Disinhibition

134
Q

ASPD (Psychopathy): Antagonism

A
  • Manipulativeness
    > frequent use of subterfuge to influence or control others
    > use of seduction, charm to achieve ones ends
  • Deceitfulness
    > dishonesty and fraudulence
    > misrepresentation of self
  • Callousness
    > lack of concern for feelings or problems of others
    > lack of guilt or remorse about negative or harmful effects of actions on others
  • Hostility
    > persistent or frequent angry feelings
    > anger in response to minor slights and insults
    > mean, nasty or vengeful behaviour
135
Q

AsPD (Psychopathy): Disinhibition

A
  • Irresponsibility
    > failure to honour financial and other obligations or commitments
    > does not follow through agreements
  • Impulsivity
    > acting on the spur of the moment in response to immediate stimuli
    > difficult to follow plans
  • Risk-taking
    > engagement in dangerous activities
    > boredom proneness and thoughtless activities
    > lack of concern of ones limitations and denial of personal danger
136
Q

ASPD (Psychopathy): impairments in personality functioning

A
  • Stable across time and consistent across situations
  • Not better understood as normative for the individual’s development stage or socio-cultural environment
  • Not solely due to the direct physiological effects of a substance or a general medical condition
  • Need to be at least 18 to diagnose
137
Q

Personality Disorders in general

A
  • Diagnoses need to be made with an understanding of a persons history, circumstances and culture
  • Clinical psychologists and psychiatrists have to figure out what people are dealing with and how to help them live with these conditions
138
Q

SUMMARY

Personality disorders

A
  • Refer to mental health conditions that focus on how individuals relate to those around them (and to themselves)
139
Q

SUMMARY

Both BPD and ASPD

A
  • Are characterized by impairments in self- and interpersonal functioning & the presence of pathological traits
140
Q

SUMMARY

Personality disorders symptoms

A
  • Behaviours must be long-lasting and not be caused by external factors (e.g. cultural norms, work stress, substance use…)

Psychology Semester 1 (7 decks)

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