Individual Differences Flashcards
1
Q
General rules of human behaviour
A
- Psychology generates general rules of human behaviour
- Try and understand how most people will behave
- Interested in explanations that apply to more than one person
2
Q
Limitations on general rules of human behaviour
A
- Need to know how people differ as well how they are alike
- Average behaviour
- Variability of behaviours
3
Q
Limitations - Average behaviours
A
- Any single individual may not behave like this
- Rules alone will not tell us much about specific people
4
Q
Limitations - Variability
A
- Meaning we might lose the richness of human behaviour
5
Q
Individual Differences: Aims
A
- To study how people differ from each other
- Looks at variance or range of responses
- Explains how and why people respond differently to each other
6
Q
Explaining peoples behaviour
A
- Sometimes situations are better at explaining people’s behaviour than personality
7
Q
Munstedt & Muhkhans (2013)
A
- Fear of wasps, bees and spiders may be partly related to personality
- People who are more afraid of these have higher scores of Neuroticism and lower scores for openness
8
Q
Differential psychologists
A
- Seek to identify general factors underlying individuality (apply to everyone)
- Develop theories for explain/predicting differences and similarities in thought, emotion and behaviour
- Aim to explain HOW and WHY people are difference from one another
9
Q
How are we different?
A
- Personality
- Intelligence
- Sense of Humour
- Appearance
- Abilities
- Interests
- Language
10
Q
Everyday understanding of personality
A
- Fairly fixed or immutable: unlike mood or situational responses which can change
- Enduring or stable: consistent across the lifespan
- Differing among individual in population: each of us differs from the next person in our personality
11
Q
Personality definition main points
A
- Internal and causal
- Long-lasting
- Explains why we behave the way we do in most situations
- Does not vary a lot within a person, but can vary a lot from onw person to another (explains difference)
12
Q
Defining personality
A
- Hypothetical construct: cannot be directly observed and we infer its existence from observations of behaviour that we assume is related to personality
13
Q
Evidence for defining personality
A
- Is something we construct, think about cultural differences
- Cultures: happy, serious, responsible attribute to different values
- Theories make different claims about the nature of personality
14
Q
Personality consider
A
- Nomothetic
- Idiographic
15
Q
Nomothetic
A
- TRAITS
- Personalities can be described in term of pre-defined criteria
- Which are present in every individual
- What differs between people is the strength of those traits
16
Q
Idiographic
A
- TYPES
- Personalities are uniquely constructed across individuals
- No common character traits to compare people on
- There are different groups which people either belong to or don’t
17
Q
Difference between trait and type
A
- TRAIT: shared categories but differ in strength
- TYPE: either belong or you don’t
18
Q
Personality research
A
- Interested in figuring out what things are dispositional and what things are situational
19
Q
Dispositional
A
- Behaviour is driven by internal, consistent dispositions
- Attempts to explain people’s behaviour by their personality traits
20
Q
Situational
A
- Behaviour is driven by external. variable factors (i,e. situations in the environment)
- Attempts to explain people’s behaviour by their environment
21
Q
Trait V State
A
- Trait: Dispositional, long-term (introverts)
- State: Situational, short-term (hungry)
22
Q
Traits - lifespan
A
- Fairly stable
- although may be expressed in different ways
23
Q
States
A
- Variable and determined by the environment
24
Q
Personality traits - psychologist
A
- Argue that personality is based on traits rather than types
- Nomothetic view instead of an idiographic approach
25
Differential psychology
- Concerned with individual differences (i.e. the variation rather than the average)
26
Psychologists usually define personality
- Stable dimensions which affect behaviour throughout the lifespan
27
Personality research interested in
- Sorting influence of traits (dispositional) from states (situational)
28
The Four Humors
- Hippocrates and Galen
- Believed liquids in the body determined one's mood and personality (i.e. biological basis for behaviour)
- Excesses of Humors cause mood shifts
29
State the 4 humors
- Phlegmatic
- Choleric
- Sanguine
- Melancholic
30
Phlegmatic
- Phlegm
| - Calm, relaxed, slow
31
Choleric
- Yellow bile
| - Aggressive, tense, impulsive
32
Sanguine
- Blood
| - Enthusiastic, optimistic
33
Melancholic
- Black bile
- Sad, reflective
- More of an idiographic approach
34
The 4 humors attempt
- To describe people's dispositions and create different categories of individuals
35
Physiognomy
- Lavater (1775)
- Art of reading people's faces to determine their personality
- Darwin: outline of peoples features
36
Phrenology
- Gall, 1758-1828
| - Modulation of children's skulls
37
Common findings until 1800s
- Humorism
- Physiognomy
- Phrenology
38
Psychodynamic approach
- Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
- 'Conversion hysteria': physical symptoms with no obvious cause. worked on it in Paris
- Theorised that symptoms were result of suppressed, pionful, memories (usually sexual or aggressive) based on hypnosis, free association and dream analysis
39
Freud's theory of personality
- Believed personality is a system of energy that presses for release:
- ID
- EGO
- SUPEREGO
40
Freud's theory: ID
- Instincts and drives, source of all psychic energy, unconscious, core of personality, pleasure principle (present from birth)
41
Freud's theory: EGO
- Executive part of personality, conscious level, mediates the urges of the ID against the rules of the SUPEREGO (planning, thinking), emerges in the first few years of life
42
Freud's theory: SUPEREGO
- Internalised morals of society, developed by around 4 or 5 years
43
ID + EGO + SUPEREGO interact and create conflict
- Results in anxiety
44
Defence mechanisms of personality examples
- Denial
- Isolation
- Repression
- Regression
45
Evaluation of Freudian Theory
- Data on which theory was based not rigorous
- Theory was based a lot on metaphors
- Unconscious influences on behaviour
- Defence mechanisms
- 'Psychic energy': vague making it hard to test (bad for science)
- His background on neurological seemed to try and give simplistic account of the mind that matched physical structure
- Overall: theories claimed too much on too little dtat
46
Evaluation of Freudian Theory: Data on which theory was based not rigorous
- Sketchy case notes
- Small number of individual case studies
- Not representative of general population
47
Evaluation of Freudian Theory: Theory was based a lot on metaphors
- Much of interpretation of data is retrospective
| - Quite difficult to be wrong
48
Evaluation of Freudian Theory: Unconscious influences on behaviour
- Unconscious processing of information (e.g. subliminal perception)
49
Evaluation of Freudian Theory: Defence mechanisms
- Cognitive mechanism exclude or defer unwanted information from consciousness (cognitive avoidance/dissonance reduction)
- Similar to repression
50
Evaluation of Freudian Theory: Contribution that isn't contentious
- Talking helps!
| - As a theory, psychoanalysis had a lot of issues but as a method, it was revolutionary
51
Jungian Theory
- Carl Jung (1875-1961)
| - Developed ideas such as the collective unconscious, archetypes, and extraversion/intraversion
52
Jungian archetypes
- Devil
- Hero
- Trickster
- Mother
- Wise old man
- Tower
53
Jungian Personality
- Developed a theory of personality which has become more wide-spread
54
Jungian Personality: 'types'
- 16 different 'types' based on assumptions that we are either:
> Extraverted or introverted
> Sensing or intuitive
> Thinking or feeling
> Judging or perceiving (adding by Briggs and Meyers)
55
Jungian Personality: 16 types
- Attempted to classify the majority of individuals using these dimensions
- Mix of nomothetic and idiographic approaches: everyone is somewhere on the 4 different spectrums, but you class people as one of 16 types
- Vast majority of people should be classifiable under the 16 types
56
Myers-Briggs Test
- WW2 developed
- Wanted to assign women to jobs best suited to their personality
- Not scientifically validated however used in organisations and settings
- Usually relies on binary choices (extravert or not)
57
Myers-Briggs Test: 4 letter type
```
- The combination of your position on the four different dimensions gives you a 4 letter 'type' ENFJ
> Extraverted
> Intuitive
> Feeling
> Judging
```
58
Barnum effect
- When people feel that a general personality statement is somehow accurately describing their own unique self
- Various qualities make statements more likely to be perceived as accurate descriptions
59
Dickson & Kelly 1985
- Said that statements should be favourable, vague and double-headed
- i.e. referring to variability
60
Sheldon's (1899-1977): somatotypes
- Endomorph
- Mesomorph
- Ectomorph
61
Sheldon's (1899-1977): Endomorph (fat)
- Sociable
- Peaceful
- Tolerant
62
Sheldon's (1899-1977): Mesomorph (sporty)
- Assertive
- Proactive
- Vigorous
63
Sheldon's (1899-1977): Ectomorph (skinny
- Insecure
- Sensitive
- Quiet
64
Somatotypes
- Basing what you are like off your body type
65
Types A & B (personality)
- Gave people binary questions to say whether or not they agreed with something
- Yes or no
66
Type A personality
- Highly strung, ambitious, rigidly organised, sensitive, truthful, impatient
- (increased risk of heart disease)
67
Type B personality
- Works steadily, lower stress, doesn't mind losing, creative
68
The Trait Approach
- Hans Eysenck (1916-1997)
| - 1947: 2 dimensions
69
The Trait Approach: 2 Dimensions
- Extravert -----> Introvert
- Neurotic ------> Emotionally stable
- Everyone is somewhere on these dimensions (i.e. nomothetic)
70
The Trait Approach
Neuroticism
- Scheier, Carver & Bridges, 1994
- A multi-faceted construct of negative affect:
> involves pessimism, self-doubt, unstable, emotional states, and worry
71
The Gigantic 3 (1957,67,91)
- Neuroticism
- Extraversion
- Psychoticism (1970s)
72
The Gigantic 3
Psychometric instruments:
- Muadsley Medical Questionnaire (MMQ)
| - Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI)
73
The Gigantic 3
Theoretically orthogonal/independent traits:
- Scores on one trait do not indicate how a person will score on another trait
- Complete description of an individual requires information on all 3 traits
- Nothing else is needed to fully describe all aspects of a given individual
74
Biological Basis of Gigantic 3
- Eysenck
>Reticulo-cortical system (in brain stem)
>Reticulo-limbic system (in visceral area i.e. forebrain)
75
Biological Basis of Gigantic 3: Eysenck
Traits stable throughout life, so likely to be inherited
76
Biological Basis of Gigantic 3: Reticulo-cortical system
- Controls cortical arousal
| - Introverts experience greater arousal here
77
Biological Basis of Gigantic 3: Reticulo-limbic system
- Controls responses to emotional stimuli
| - Neurotics experience greater arousal here
78
Biological causes of Gigantic 3
- Brains sensitivity to stimulation
- Baseline level of arousal differs across individuals
- Reticular activating system (RAS) is responsible for differences
79
Biological causes of Gigantic 3: RAS
- Reticular activating system
- Is a "relay station" for incoming sensory impulses
- Alerts or wakes up cortex to tell it about incoming stimuli
80
Sub-divisions of the RAS: Extraversion
- Determines arousability
- Inhibition or excitation of cerebral cortex:
> Motivation, emotion, conditioning
- Introverts are more aroused than extraverts
> Extraverts = sensation seekers
> Introverts = sensation avoiders
social competence ≠ extraversion
81
Sub-divisions of the RAS: Neuroticism
- Reticulo-limbic system generates activation perceived as arousal, induced by emotional stimuli
- If limbic system very active > experience intense emotion (esp anxiety)
82
Neuroticism is
- Relationship between excitability and emotional responsiveness
83
Psychoticism
- Differences driven by testosterone
> Leads to breaks with reality
> High psychoticism characterised by 'tough mindedness', egocentrism, creativity, lack of empathy, anti-social behaviour
84
Evaluation of Eysenck's Theory
- Good empirical support of N and E
- Details of brain mechanisms are weak
- Theory a little too parsimonious
85
Evaluation of Eysenck's Theory: Good empirical support of N and E
- Evidence of predictive value
| - Across-cultures, suggesting they many be "universal"
86
Evaluation of Eysenck's Theory: Details of brain mechanisms are weak
- Brain mechanisms do not work in such a simplistic way, but involved large and complex networks of structures
87
Evaluation of Eysenck's Theory: Theory too parsimonious
- Are 3 factors enough to capture all personality variability
88
Historically, personality was typically viewed
- As 'types'
- Sanguine versus melancholic
- A versus B
89
Psychodynamic approaches view personality
- As a product of developmental conflict between mind structures, but had a little empirical support
90
Trait approaches propose
- That personality is the product of a combination of 'traits' on which we all vary
91
Big 5
- Costa & McCrae, 1985
| - Description classification of personality based on lexical hypothesis (trait words will distinguish between people)
92
Name the Big 5
- Extraversion
- Neuroticism
- Openness to experience
- Agreeableness
- Conscientiousness
93
How the Big 5 were selected
- 1, 431 major descriptors
- 75 fundamental adjectives - - Data reduction
- Big 5
94
Neuroticism
- Anxiety
- Angry
- Hostility
- Depression
95
Extraversion
- Warmth
- Assertiveness
- Activity
- Positive emotions
96
Openness to experience
- Fantasy
- Ideas
- Values
- Aesthetics
97
Agreeableness
- Trust
- Tender Mindedness
- Modesty
- Compliance
98
Conscientiousness
- Order
- Self-discipline
- Achievement-striving
- Competence
99
The Big 5 structure
- Similar to Eysenck's Gigantic 3 (including neuroticism {original trait})
- Uses more dimensions to capture more details about the way people act and think
100
The Big 5 Taxonomy
- 4 lines of reasoning and evidence support fundamental nature of the Big 5:
> Enduring dispositions, observable in behaviour (longitudinal and cross-observer studies)
> Traits are found in a variety of personality systems and in the natural language of trait descriptions
> Found in different age, sex, race and language groups
> Heritability evidence suggest biological basis of all 5
101
The Big 5 abbreviated
- OCEAN or NEOAC
102
The Big 5 Taxonomy
Allik & McCrae (2002)
- Knowledge about personality traits can only be inferred from asking questions about habits, attitudes, preferences and social skills
- (i.e. characteristic adaptations)
103
Criticisms of Big 5
- Lack of theory as to where differences in conscientiousness, agreeableness and openness stem from
- Some evidence for inter-correlations between traits
104
Big 5 predict anything useful;
- Barrick & Mount (1998) used it to examine job performance (meta-analysis)
- Criteria
> Job proficiency
> Training proficiency
> Personnel data
```
- Jobs:
> Professionals
> Police
> Managers
> Sales
> Skilled/semi-skilled
```
105
Barrick & Mount (1998): Results
- CONSCIENTIOUSNESS
> related with job performance for all groups
- EXTRAVERSION
> valid predictor for all criteria for sales and management (i.e. jobs focusing on interactions with others)
- OPENNESS TO EXPERIENCE
> predicted success on training proficiency only
> perhaps 'training ready'
- NEUROTICISM
> did not correlate strongly with job performance
> suggest possible self-selection
> or a non-linear relationship
- AGREEABLENESS
> was not a strong predictor of job performance (unlike extraversion)
106
The Big 5 and Health
- Extraversion moderate predictor of positive affect
- Neuroticism strong predictor of negative affect & linked to internalising disorders
> sensitivity of extraverts and neurotics to rewards and punishments
> extraverts experience more frequent positive life events, and vice versa doe neurotics
107
Validating the Big 5
- Vassend and Skrondal (2011)
| > used factor analysis to evaluate how well the five-factor model explained questionnaire data for 856 people
108
Validating the Big 5 results
- Good validity was found on the whole
| - Extraversion and Agreeableness actually had multiple components
109
Big 5 are argued
- To be biologically based
| - Largely affected by one's upbringing
110
Evidence supporting Big 5
- Across all cultures and throughout lifespan
| - Although some of the factors are more complex than others
111
Your theory about personality will affect
- How you determine whether something is clinically "abnormal"
112
NHS defines personality disorders as
- 'mental health conditions that affect how people manage their feelings and how they relate to other people'
- 'behaves or relates to others very differently to the average person'
113
Difference between mental health problems and a personality disorder
- Personality disorders are the product of the way that a person inherently interacts with the world around them
114
Causes and criteria of a personality disorder
```
- Combination of
> Genetics
> Childhood trauma
> Verbal abuse
> High sensitivity
> Peers
```
115
Essential features of a personality disorder
- Impairments in personality (self and interpersonal) functioning and the presence of pathological personality traits
116
To count as a disorder
- Usually have to causes problems with the way you live your life
- They interfere with your ability to eat, sleep, do your work, make friends
- Tied to the ways you relate to others and yourself
117
Traits defining a personality disorder are pathological:
- Excessive
> displayed greater than in most people e.g. risk taking
- Harmful
> social isolation, physical violence, law-breaking, death
118
2 Types of disorders studied
- Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD)
| - Antisocial Personality Disorder (Psychopathy) (ASPD)
119
BDP: criteria that must be met
- Significant impairments in personality functioning
| - Pathological personality traits
120
BDP: Significant impairments in personality functioning
- Impairments in self functioning
| - Impairments in interpersonal functioning
121
BDP: Impairments in self functioning either
- Identity: Markedly impoverished, poorly developed
| - Self-direction: Instability in goals, aspirations, values, or career plans
122
BDP: Impairments in interpersonal functioning either
- Empathy:
> cant recognise feelings and needs for others
> prone to feel slighted or insulted
> views of others are biased towards negative attributes
- Intimacy:
> Intense, unstable and conflicted close relationships
> neediness and anxious of abandonment
> close relationships viewed in extremes of idealisation and devaluations
123
BDP: Pathological personality traits
- Negative Affectivity
- Disinhibition
- Antagonism
124
BDP: Pathological personality traits: Negative Affectivity
- Emotional lability
> mood changes
> unstable emotional experiences
> out of proportion to events
- Anxiousness
> intense feelings of nervousness
- fear of losing control
> worry about negative effects past and future
- Separation insecurity
> fears of rejection from significant others
> fears of excessive dependency
- Depressivity
> frequently feeling down
> suicidal behaviour
> hopeless
125
BDP: Pathological personality traits: Disinhibition
- Impulsivity
> acting on the spur of the moment
> difficultly follow plans
> self harm under emotional destress
- Risk taking
> Engagement in dangerous activities
> no concern over limitations
> denial of personal danger
126
BDP: Pathological personality traits: Antagonism
- Hostility
> persistent or frequent angry feelings
- Anger/irritability
> in response to minor slights and insults
127
BDP the impairments in personality functioning
- Stable across time and consistent across situations
- Not better understood as normative for the individual's development stage or socio-cultural environment
- Not solely due to the direct physiological effects of a substance or a general medical condition
128
BDP Overview
- Over-represented in prison populations
- Particularly in women
- Associated with a history of childhood abuse, impulsive and violent crimes and antisocial traits
129
ASPD (Psychopathy): criteria that must be met
- Significant impairments in personality functioning
| - Pathological personality
130
ASPD (Psychopathy): Significant impairments in personality functioning
- Impairments in self functioning
| - Impairments in interpersonal functioning
131
ASPD (Psychopathy): Impairments in self functioning (either)
- Identify
> ego-centrism
> self-esteem derived from personal gain
> power or pleasure
- Self-direction
> Goal-setting based on personal gratification
- no prosocial internal standards connected to failure
132
ASPD (Psychopathy): Impairments in interpersonal functioning (either)
- Empathy
> lack of concern for feelings, needs, suffering of others
> lack of remorse after hurting or mistreating another
Intimacy
> incapacity for mutually intimate relationships
> use of dominance or intimidation to control others
133
ASPD (Psychopathy): Pathological personality traits
- Antagonism
| - Disinhibition
134
ASPD (Psychopathy): Antagonism
- Manipulativeness
> frequent use of subterfuge to influence or control others
> use of seduction, charm to achieve ones ends
- Deceitfulness
> dishonesty and fraudulence
> misrepresentation of self
- Callousness
> lack of concern for feelings or problems of others
> lack of guilt or remorse about negative or harmful effects of actions on others
- Hostility
> persistent or frequent angry feelings
> anger in response to minor slights and insults
> mean, nasty or vengeful behaviour
135
AsPD (Psychopathy): Disinhibition
- Irresponsibility
> failure to honour financial and other obligations or commitments
> does not follow through agreements
- Impulsivity
> acting on the spur of the moment in response to immediate stimuli
> difficult to follow plans
- Risk-taking
> engagement in dangerous activities
> boredom proneness and thoughtless activities
> lack of concern of ones limitations and denial of personal danger
136
ASPD (Psychopathy): impairments in personality functioning
- Stable across time and consistent across situations
- Not better understood as normative for the individual's development stage or socio-cultural environment
- Not solely due to the direct physiological effects of a substance or a general medical condition
- Need to be at least 18 to diagnose
137
Personality Disorders in general
- Diagnoses need to be made with an understanding of a persons history, circumstances and culture
- Clinical psychologists and psychiatrists have to figure out what people are dealing with and how to help them live with these conditions
138
SUMMARY
Personality disorders
- Refer to mental health conditions that focus on how individuals relate to those around them (and to themselves)
139
SUMMARY
Both BPD and ASPD
- Are characterized by impairments in self- and interpersonal functioning & the presence of pathological traits
140
SUMMARY
Personality disorders symptoms
- Behaviours must be long-lasting and not be caused by external factors (e.g. cultural norms, work stress, substance use…)
