Improving Retrieval - Memory L7

Question 1

What is the Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve?

Answer 1

Standard Forgetting Function from Memory: A contribution to experimental psychology (1885)

(graph slide 1)

Question 2

What is Hypermnesia

Answer 2

Memory getting better with delay
In some cases, typically involving repeated recall attempts, and often using visual stimuli net gains in memory can be observed over time.

In some cases additional “thinking” can help.

In most cases hypermesia requires consistent increases in “retrieval effort” (though see Mulligan, 2006)

Question 3

Normal memory may be the result of which two processes?

Answer 3

Forgetting + Reminiscence

Question 4

When can Hypermnesia be observed?

Answer 4

In cases where forgetting is low, and reminiscence is high, a net gain in memory over time (hypermnesia) can be observed.

Question 5

What are the practical uses for Hypermnesia?

Answer 5

Repeated Recalls of a Crime

Question 6

What is Repeated recalls for a crime?

Answer 6

Watch a 2 minute tape where a burglar breaks into a house and shoots 3 innocent victims. Recall immediately (trial 1), then do questionnaire, then recall trial 2, then do second questionnaire, then recall trial 3.

Return 48 hours later for recall trial 4.

Scrivner & Safer (1988)

Question 7

What are the issues in repeated testing?

Answer 7

• Recall does seem to improve over time, though this may be partly down to limited recall time (7 minutes) and the 47 box detail procedure.
• Other studies have replicated hypermnesia effects for emotional items and suggest that hypermnesia may be even stronger in negatively arousing conditions (Kern, Libkumen & Otani, 2002).
• Could this be a basis for recovery of “forgotten” emotional memories?
• But N.B. - repeated focus on details can make false (suggested) memories more likely with repeated testing (Lane et al., 2001).
• Theoretical interpretation of hypermnesia remains controversial, though it has also been shown in Recognition tests (e.g. Groninger & Murray, 2004) so it can’t just be down to retrieval effort.
• What else can we do to enhance retrieval – Encoding Specificity Principle?

Question 8

What is context dependent memory - Godden & Baddedley 1975?

Answer 8

Divers’ Memories -
Learn a list of words either on land, or in the water.
Recall the list either on land, or in the water.

A change of context impairs memory because cues from the environment have been integrated into the encoding.
But no effect in recognition

Question 9

What is state dependent memory - Goodwin et al., (1969)?

Answer 9

Internal state of the subject (drunk versus sober)

1. Alcohol generally impairs memory!
2. But there is a strong state dependency effect.

Question 10

What is Mood Congruent memory - Teasdale & Russell (1983)?

Answer 10

We tend to recall information congruent with our current mood (i.e. if we’re happy, we think happy thoughts).

Mood induction typically using Velten procedure.

This is a very robust result than and works with both normal moods- e.g. everyday ambulatory monitoring – (Loeffler et al., 2013) and extreme mood states e.g Williams autobiographical memories in depression & dysphoria.

Question 11

How can you measure mood dependent memory?

Answer 11

while mood congruent memory is easy to demonstrate (hence the demo) mood dependent memory is much more difficult.

To demonstrate mood dependent memory you need a fully crossed design (cf. Godden and Baddeley, 1975) with neutral (or nonsense) words (not emotional words) as the stimuli.

Question 12

What are the Stages of the Cognitive Interview?

Answer 12

1) Mentally reinstate the context of the event. Recall the scene, the weather, what you were thinking and feeling at the time, the preceding events, etc.

2) Report every detail you can remember even if it seems trivial and irrelevant.

3) Report the episode in several different temporal orders, moving backwards and forwards in time.

4) Try to describe the episode as it would have been seen from different viewpoints, not just your own.

Question 13

How did Geiselman et al., (1986) conduct a study supporting the Cognitive interview?

Answer 13

Watch violent film, wait 2 days, then standard or cognitive interview

Standard Interview: 29.4 correct items

Cognitive Interview: 41.2 correct items No difference in number of errors

Subsequent support for effectiveness in shortened form (Davis et al., 2005) and a variety of contexts (e.g. Holliday, 2003; Holliday & Albon, 2004; Stein & Memon, 2006)

Question 14

Why may congitive interview be that effective?

Answer 14

The Cognitive Interview is a powerful demonstration of the effectiveness of having the right retrieval cues available, but in everyday life the retrieval context/demands may not be ones that enhance the accuracy of memory.

Question 15

What are Remembered attitudes - Ross?

Answer 15

After an attitude change manipulation, when people are asked what their previous attitude was, it tends to change towards their current attitude (e.g. Attitude towards exercise, after “dangers of jogging” film)

cf. hindsight bias

Question 16

What is Remembered behaviour - Ross)

Answer 16

After attitude change manipulations, people’s memories of their previous behaviour can become distorted (e.g. Frequency of toothbrushing, after “dangers of frequent toothbrushing” film)

cf. cognitive dissonance

Question 17

What are Remembered abilities - (Conway & Ross, 1984)?

Answer 17

Groups of students rated their study skills before participating on a training program. Such programs are rarely successful, and this one was no different e.g. no improvements were observed (in skills or grades). Afterwards students attempted to remember their pre-course ratings.

They systematically remembered their pre-course ratings as having been worse than they really were.

“Getting what you want, by revising what you had.”

Here retrieval is socially motivated to be state-incongruent.
Remembering may serve complex social and autobiographical functions…