Imperialism and Chaos 1912-1931 Flashcards
1
Q
Early 20th Century Developments
A
- Japan’s path: Successful industrialisation of the Meiji State leads to establishment of Japanese Empire as world power
- Korea’s path: Annexation by Japan begins period of bitter resistance as well as accommodation to new situation
- China’s path: Establishment of ROC offers possibility of change and regaining dignity. But, structural problems remain massive.
2
Q
East Asia 1912-1931
A
- Industrialisation and modernisation led to massive change in daily lives of ordinary people
- Same for political unrest and instability
- Awakening of nationalism in all three countries
- Introduction of liberal and radical ideas (democracy, socialism, feminism)
- But, also thriving of authoritarianism and rise of militarism
- Demands for self-determination in China/Korea contrast with increasing desire for imperialism in Japan
3
Q
The Fall of the Qing: Xinhai Revolution
A
- Wuchang Uprising 10-10-1911
- Qing turns to army leader Yuan Shikai, who focuses mostly on establishing his power within the army
- Qing quickly loses control of large parts of China
- Republic of China 01-01-1912 (Sun Yat-sen first President)
- Official abdication of Qing Emperor 12-02-1912
4
Q
Republic of China (ROC) 01-01-1912
A
- Beiyang Government 1912-1928
- Nanjing Decade 1927-1937
- Ten-Year Civil War KMT-CCP 1928-1937
- Second Sino-Japanese War 1937-1945
- (Continuation of) Civil War KMT-CCP 1946-1949
- 01-10-1949: Establishment of People’s Republic of China (PRC)
5
Q
Sun Yat-sen 1866-1925
A
- Before 1911: Republican leader in exile
- Seen as Father of the Nation in both mainland China (PRC) and Taiwan (ROC) today
- Actual time in power extremely limited
- Both Nationalists (KMT) and Communists (CCP) lay claim to Sun legacy after his death
- Returns to China in 1911 to briefly become President of ROC January-March 1912
- Then has to flee abroad again after Yuan Shikai establishes power
- Attempts to establish power base in Guangzhou from 1920
6
Q
The Three Principles of the People
A
- Nationalism –> The unity of the “five nationalities” (Han, Mongolian, Tibetan, Manchu, Muslim) and their struggle against imperial oppression.
- Democracy –> Separation of powers, leading to: a national assembly (parliament) and five government bodies (executive, legislature, control, examination, judicial)
- Welfare –> Provision of public goods by the government
7
Q
Yuan Shikai 1859-1916: ROC President 1912-1916
A
- Power base in late Qing Beiyang army
- Positions himself decisively for post-Qing power struggle
- After 1912 increasingly authoritarian
- 1914: Removed Republican institutions (suspends parliament, provincial assemblies, and basic rights)
- Declared himself emperor in Dec 1915 and died six months later
- Leaves fractured nation with military factions vying for control
8
Q
Founding of the Kuomintang (KMT) 25 August 1912
A
- Led by Sun Yat-sen
- Advocates constitutional parliamentary democracy
- Dec 1912: majority in National Assembly election
- Try to be a check on Yuan Shikai’s power
- But soon KMT is suppressed by Yuan Shikai and Beiyang government
9
Q
Beiyang Government 1912-1928
A
- Military clique of the modernised Beiyang Army of the late Qing
- Suppress democratisation efforts of Sun Yat-sen: disband parliament, kill KMT leader Song Jiaoren
- Fractured after Yuan’s death in 1916: central government practically dissolves
- Government and country fragments as military leaders fight for control
- China seems like a failed state
- But, all this time Beiyang government in Beijing nominally in control and internationally recognised as legitimate government
10
Q
Warlord Era 1916-1928
A
11
Q
New Culture Movement 1915-1921
A
- Movement of intellectuals
- Call for: use of vernacular Chinese, democratic values, criticism of Confucianism
- Interest in feminism, anarchism, and marxism
- Peking University: Cai Yuanpei (chancellor), Chen Duxiu (dean), Li Dazhao (librarian)
- Magazine “New Youth”: experimental literature and essays on politics
12
Q
Lu Xun 1881-1936
A
- Most influential modern Chinese writer
- “A Madman’s Diary”: traditional Chinese culture (Confucianism) left China weak and vulnerable
- Wide interest in social issues
- Influential in New Culture Movement
13
Q
04-05-1919: May Fourth Movement
A
- Part of New Culture Movement
- Protest against Beiyang Government’s inability to protect China’s interests
- After Versailles Treaty (German concessions ceded to Japan)
- Outburst of intellectual activity
- Intellectual turning point: radicalisation of Chinese thought
- Especially in PRC seen as pivotal moment in revolutionary history
14
Q
Founding of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) 21 July 1921
A
- Founders: Li Dazhao and Chen Duxiu
- Probably 12 people present including a young Mao Zedong
- Chen Duxiu first General-Secretary CCP 1921-1927
- At start only 50 members; about 30.000 in 1926
- Heavily controlled by Comintern/USSR
15
Q
From 1920: Sun Yat-sen and KMT in Guangzhou
A
- New rival government opposed to Beiyang government
- But, no recognition by western powers
- No military strength: Sun realises this is needed
- 1923: Turn to USSR
- Soviet advisors arrive to restructure KMT
- This means cooperation with the CCP
- Whampoa Military Academy: to build military strength KMT (and CCP)
- Rise of military leader: Chiang Kai-Shek
16
Q
First United Front 1924-1927: KMT and CCP
A
- To end Warlordism and oppose the Beiyang Government
- “National Revolutionary Army” but both parties maintain own parties units
- Major distrust between them
- 1926-1928: embark on Northern Expedition to topple warlords and Beiyang government
- 1925: Sun Yat-sen dead
- New leader: Chiang Kai-Shek
- 1927: Chiang turns on communists in Shanghai Massacre
17
Q
Chiang Kai-shek 1887-1975
A
- Gains control of KMT in 1925/6
- Close to Sun Yat-sen: disciple and brother in law
- But, much more authoritarian and anti-communist than Sun Yat-sen
- Leader of China after Northern Expedition
- Defeats several warlords and conquers Beijing in 1928. Capital in Nanjing.
- Decentralisation still an issue: Though officially in charge, he struggles to contain warlordism
- Internationally recognised leader
- Official title equivalent to President
18
Q
Nanjing Decade 1927-1937
A
The Good:
- Moderately effective central government
- Diplomatic recognition
- Undoing of unequal treaties
- Infrastructure projects and some industrial growth
- Standardisation of Modern Chinese
The Bad:
- Corruption and nepotism widespread
- Aggressive suppression of dissent
- Decentralisation: Country still fractured with Warlods
- Civil War with CCP
- From 1931: Increasing Japanese encroachment in Northeast
19
Q
Annexation of Korea by Japan in 1910
A
20
Q
Colonial Korea 1910-1931
A
- Korea to be ruled by Japanese Governor-General in Keijo (Seoul)
- Highly centralised and intrusive rule
- Agriculture priority: Korea was to be rice producer for industrialising Japan
- Especially farmers encouraged to emigrate: increase of Japanese colonists; 170.000 in 1910
- By 1932: 52% arable land owned by Japanese
- But Korean yangban elites also benefit from land reforms
- From 1920s: Meiji style industrialisation
21
Q
1910-1920 “The Dark Period”
A
- Very tense relations between Japan and Korea
- Tens of thousands of political prisoners
- No Korean owned newspapers
- All political meetings banned
- Economic focus on resource extraction
- Establishment of strong oppressive police state
- Disbanded Korean army produces anti-Japanese guerillas
- Independence activism very fragmented
22
Q
March 1st Movement 1919
A
- First true nationwide resistance movement
- Inspired by idea of self-determination
- Korean Declaration of Independence
- Months of demonstrations involving about one million Koreans
- Suppression by army/police: around 7000 killed
- Beginning of Korean nationalism as a mass movement
23
Q
1920-1931: Korea and “Taisho Democracy”
A
- Relatively more liberal rule
- Coincides with relatively liberal trend in Japan: “Taisho Democracy”
- Civilian police and Korean publications allowed
- More Korean representation on local level
- Culture policy: tolerance for Korean cultural activities
- Thriving of Korean owned magazines and newspapers
- But, still stringent censorship rules
- Ubiquitous police presence and oppression of independence activism
24
Q
1920-1931: Industrialisation and Education
A
- Meiji style industrialisation policies
- Government support for entrepreneurship: but big industry largely in hands of Japanese
- Infrastructure investments: railroads and schools
- Introduction of public education (largely segregated)
- 1925: Keijo Imperial University
- Education system focused on Japanese Empire, but did not ignore Korean history/culture
- Japanese settlers encouraged to learn Korean
- Resource extraction: coal, iron ore, food
- Nominal equality masked everyday racism
25
Q
Korean Independence Movement
A
Very varied group:
- Activities in Korea itself: contrast between leftists and moderate nationalists
- Christian groups inside and outside Korea
- Korean students in Japan (often communist)
- Provisional Government in Shanghai: centrist and center-right, some progressive
- Koreans in Manchuria/Russia: largely became part of Chinese communist groups
26
Q
Korean Nationalism: Early Division
A
Seth: “The early 1920s saw a division among Korean nationalists that would profoundly shape Korean history: between the moderate, Western-looking cultural nationalists, and the more radical nationalists who tended to look toward the Soviet Union and Communist movements abroad for inspiration.”
27
Q
Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea 11 April 1919
A
- Government in exile in Shanghai; though in reality just one of many independence groups
- Advocates for Republic with presidential system and separation of powers
- Not recognised internationally at first
- But, some cooperation with KMT and later Nationalist government
- Important figures: Syngman Rhee, Kim Gu
- Government moves to Chongqing in WWII
- Current ROK government sees this as start of modern Korean state
28
Q
Japan: Taisho Period 1912-1926
A
- Reign era of Teisha Emperor
- “Taisho Democracy”: Generational change from Genro “oligarchs” to parliamentary democratic system with politicians and political parties
- Bitter rivalry between left and right
- Period of progressive changes as well as reactionary oppression:
– 1918: first party cabinet
– 1925: universal male suffrage
– 1925: strict right-wing law to oppress disagreement
– Rise of the labour movement
– Rise of the zaibatsu
29
Q
Zaibatsu: Japan’s Business Conglomerates
A
- Holding company with a banking subsidiary; with further industrial subsidiaries focused on different sectors
- Big Four: Sumitomo, Mitsui, Mitsubishi, Yasuda
- Controlled by specific families
- Existed from late 19th century but ubiquitous after WWI
- Today: keiretsu
30
Q
Zaibatsu
A
- Increasingly unpopular during 1910s and 1920s among left and right
- Monopolistic control of major industries
- Currency speculation
- Efforts to keep down wages
- In 1930s they try to clean up their image
- 1930s Expansion into Machuria leads to new Zaibatsu not family owned
31
Q
Zaibatsu: Massive influence on politics and military
A
Mitsui:
- Rikken Seiyukai political party (militarist, advocates expansion into Manchuria)
- Imperial Japanese army
Mitsubishi:
- Rikken Minseito political party (more liberal, with conciliatory foreign policy)
- Imperial Japanese navy
32
Q
Japan 1910-1920: Industrialisation and Urbanisation
A
- WW1 brought a huge export-led boom to Japan
- Growth of heavy industry: zaibatsu
- Tremendous social changes: formation of industrial working class
- 1918 sudden peak of economic breakdowns: inflation, stagnant wages, doubling of price of rice
- 1918 Rice Riots –> Major uprising in cities and countryside throughout the summer
- This economic bubble burst in 1920: recession
33
Q
Reaction to Japan’s Industrialisation: The Rise of Organised Labour
A
- Throughout 1910s various small labour unions arose: large strikes increasingly common
- 1921: Japan Federation of Labour (membership: 100.000)
- Influential in achieving universal male suffrage in 1925 and founding of Social Democratic Party
- But “cooperative” stance leads to left-wing unions breaking away in 1925
- 1922: Japanese Communist Party formed; outlawed and forced underground in 1925
- All this makes conservative elites very uncomfortable
34
Q
Japan’s National Security Debate in 1920s: Further Imperialist Expansionism?
A
- Liberals and conservatives disagree: fierce struggle throughout 1920s
- Liberal government: 1922 agreement with Western nations to reduce size of their navies and Japan agrees to halt expansionism into China
- As a result, military spending and budget is dramatically reduced
- Japanese conservatives, especially military officials, are outraged by appeasement of Western countries
- Military officials criticize government corruption, especially politician-zaibatsu connections. Begin to advocate return to traditional Japanese values.
- Debate: expansion into Manchuria?
35
Q
1920s: The Slow Rise of Ultranationalism
A
- Aggressive tactics to eliminate opposition: censorship, arrests, assaults, and assassination
- Many liberal politicians assassinated throughout 1920s
- Laws suppressing leftist politics and dissent
- Stimulated by genuine fear of communism and labour unrest
- Pan-Asianism: critique of racial global order that discriminated Asians
- All this will increase after 1930s
- But, liberals try to articulate alternative politics until 1931
36
Q
Great Kanto Earthquake 1 September 1923
A
- 142.000 dead
- Devastated Tokyo, Yokohama, Kanagawa, Chiba, Shizuoka
Kanto Massacre:
- Three weeks of assaults on Koreans (as well as some Chinese, Ryukyuans, and Japanese socialists) condoned by the authorities: 6000 dead
- Source of rumours was Interior Ministry: “Koreans are planning terrorism and robbery by arson and bombs”
37
Q
1925: Peace Preservation Law
A
- Reinforced and tightened similar laws of the early 20th century
- Specifically designed to suppress leftist activism
- Deliberately vague: anyone belonging to an organisation that wants to alter the “system of private property” can be imprisoned
- Leads to massive crackdown on communists from 1928
- “Thought Police” established all over the country to target “Thought Criminals”
- Passed before General Election Law for universal male suffrage: so less liberty, but more voting
38
Q
The End of Japanese Liberalism: 1929-1932
A
- Economic downturn 1929 creates massive unrest around Japan
- Call for radical solutions grows
- Military officials and ultranationalists increase criticism of civilian government
- Main criticism: halting of imperialist expansionism and appeasement of west
- Militarists call for revival expansionary policy
– to gain raw materials for economy
– land for expanding population - Continued assassinations of liberal politicians
39
Q
18 September 1931 –> “Mukden Incident”: Militarists make their move
A
- Japan already very powerful in Manchuria since 1905
- Now militarists want full control
- But liberal civilian leadership objects
- Militarists stage “Mukden Incident” in Manchuria as pretext to justify Japanese invasion
- Without approval from civilian government
- Public opinion sides with militarists and days of moderate government are numbered
- 15 May 1932: Moderate Prime Minister Inukai Tsuyoshi assassinated. Now militarists in charge.
