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immunology Flashcards

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1
Q

phagocytosis

A

phagocytes recognise the cell and destroy them using phagocytosis

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2
Q

stages of phagocytosis

A

pathogen is detected by phagocyte

after being detected pathogen is engulfed into a vesicle inside the phagocyte

lysosome fuse with vesicle and release digestive enzyme which destroys the already engulfed pathogen

digested products diffuses into the the cytoplasm of phagocyte providing nutrition

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3
Q

inflammatory response

A

response by cells to damage or infection involving the release of histamine from mast cells and accumulation of phagocytes in a damaged area. also involves cytokines and vasodialation.

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4
Q

where is histamine released from?

A

mast cells

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5
Q

non-specific body defence methods

A

physical barriers
phagocytosis
production of chemical secretions
inflammatory response

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6
Q

histamine

A

histamine is released by mast cells causing vasodilation and increased capillary permeability. the increased blood flow leads to an accumulation of phagocytes and clotting elements at the site of infection

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7
Q

lysosome

A

vesicle within a phagocyte that contains digestive enzymes that destroys enzymes that destroys pathogens during phagocytosis

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8
Q

mast cells

A

cells that produce histamine in response to tissue damage

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9
Q

what is a non-specific defence?

A

general response to infection

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10
Q

pathogen

A

bacteria, viruses or other organisms which can cause disease

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11
Q

production of chemical secretions

A

releases of substances such as mucus, tears and saliva and stomach acid to help fight pathogens

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12
Q

physical barriers

A

closely packed epithelial cells in undamaged skin and inner linings of the digestive and respiratory systems; protects against entry of pathogens. they are found in these places because these are vulnerable sites of the body which come into contact with the enviroment

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13
Q

cytokines

A

they are protein molecules that act as a signal to specific white blood cells causing them to accumulate at the site of infection

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14
Q

what causes the area to be swollen , red and inflamed during the inflammatory response

A

the additional blood supply makes the injured area red and inflamed and the swelling is caused by the capillary walls becoming more permeable which causes them yto leak fluid into neighbouring tissues

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15
Q

why is the inflammatory response beneficial

A

an accumulation of phagocytes show up at the damaged tissue

rapid delivery of blood clotting chemicals to the injured area stops the loss of blood and prevents further infection and makes the start of the tissue repair process

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16
Q

where are mass cells produced

A

mass cells are produced from the same stem cells as white blood cells

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17
Q

phagocyte

A

phagocytes are white blood cells that recognise pathogens and destroy them

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18
Q

what are cytokines produced by

A

they are produced by phagocytes

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19
Q

immunity

A

immunity is the ability of the body to resist infection by a pathogen or destroy the organism if it succeeds in infecting and invading the body

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20
Q

allergy

A

in allergy B lymphocytes become hypersensitive to normally harmless antigens such as those on pollen and nuts.

the hypersensitive response produces the allergic reaction of conditions such as hay fever and peanut allergy

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21
Q

what are lymphocytes?

A

lymphocytes are the white blood cells that are involved in the specific immune response

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22
Q

what do lymphocytes respond to?

A

lymphocytes respond to specific antigens on invading pathogens

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23
Q

what makes a lymphocyte specific to one antigen?

A

lymphocytes have a single type of membrane receptor which is specific for one antigen.

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24
Q

clonal population

A

antigen binding leads to repeated lymphocyte division resulting in the formation of a clonal population of identical lymphocytes

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25
Q

what are the two types of lymphocytes?

A

B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes

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26
Q

B lymphocyte cause…

A

allergies

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27
Q

T lymphocytes cause…

A

autoimmune diseases

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28
Q

autoimmune disease

A

immune system failure can cause an immune response by T cells to self antigens present in the body. the attack on the bodys own cells by the lymphocytes causes the symptoms of autoimmune disease such as type 1 diabetes and rheumatoid arthritis.

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29
Q

herd immunity

A

herd immunity is the idea that if a large percentage of people are immunised against a disease that is spread from person to person then that protects those who aren’t immunised.

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30
Q

antigenic variation

A

mechanism by which a pathogen alters its antigens to avoid a host immune response via memory cells

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31
Q

influenza

A

viral infection that can become pandemic

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32
Q

how do vaccines work

A

an antigen that has been made harmless to produce an immune response and memory cells

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33
Q

clinical trial

A

method of obtaining data about new drugs, vaccines or other treatments

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34
Q

randomised trials

A

methods of reducing bias in clinical trials by eliminating the effects caused by variables such as age or gender of the participants

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35
Q

placebo controlled trials

A

clinical trials in which a random group of participants is given a blank rather than the treatment under trial

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36
Q

double blind trials

A

clinical trials in which neither participant or doctor know which participants are given the treatments and which are the control group

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37
Q

HIV (human immunodeficiency virus)

A

HIV attacks and destroys T lymphocytes. HIV causes the depletion of T lymphocytes which leads to the development of acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS).

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38
Q

AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome)

A

individuals with AIDS have a weakened immune system and are more vulnerable to opportunistic infections due to HIV infection

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39
Q

apoptosis

A

programmed cell death

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40
Q

specific immune response

A

activity of the immune system to a particular pathogen

41
Q

T lymphocyte

A

type of white blood cell, some kill infected cells while others stimulate the immune response

42
Q

B lymphocyte

A

white blood cell with specific cell surface responses, secretes antibodies into blood and lymph

43
Q

what do phagocytes detect?

A

surface antigens on a pathogen and then move towards it

44
Q

phagocytes engulf the invader by…

A

infolding of the cell membrane to create a vacuole

45
Q

what is pus is an accumulation of

A

dead bacteria and lymphocytes

46
Q

what is the role of lysosomes in the phagocytes cytoplasm

A

fuse with the vacuole and release digestive enzymes to destroy the invader

47
Q

memory cells

A

some lymphocytes produced by clonal selection survive long term as memory cells

48
Q

antigen

A

often a protein located on the surface of cells that trigger a specific immune response also known as any foreign molecule that is detected by a lymphocyte

49
Q

what are used in vaccines?

A
  • inactivated pathogen toxins
  • dead pathogens
  • weakened pathogens
50
Q

immunisation

A

the process by which a person develops immunity to a disease causing organism

51
Q

active immunity

A

protection gained as a result of the persons body producing its own antibodies

52
Q

naturally acquired active immunity

A

when the person becomes immune by natural means e.g. surviving the infection

53
Q

artificially acquired active immunity

A

when the person has received a vaccination to acquire immunity

54
Q

herd immunity threshold

A

percentage of immune individuals in a population above which a disease no longer manage to presisr

55
Q

antigenic variation

A

when pathogens can change their antigens and therefore avoid the immunological memory e.g influenza

56
Q

placebo effect in clinical trials

A

a control group receiving a “placebo control” treatment (a ‘blank’ vaccine/drug)

57
Q

clinical trials involve….

A

testing on animals in the lab first snd once protocals have been approved then testing on humans can take place

58
Q

clinical trials are used to…

A

establish safety and effectiveness of a vaccine or drug before they are licensed for use

59
Q

sample group size is important in clinical trials to…

A

reduce the magnitude of experimental error and establish statistical significance between the results

60
Q

where do cytokines get released from?

A

phagocytes

61
Q

B lymphocytes produce?

A

antibodies into the blood which is then carried to the infected tissue

62
Q

B lymphocytes act by…

A

recognising and binding to antigens to activate pathogens

63
Q

what do T lymphocytes do?

A

they destroy infected body tissues

64
Q

How do T lymphocytes know which tissue to destroy?

A

foreign antigen on the cell membrane of the cells the pathogens have infected

65
Q

How do T lymphocytes destroy infected cells?

A

they release proteins into the cells which makes them produce self destructive enzymes (apoptosis). the remains are then removed by phagocytes

66
Q

problems achieving herd immunity

A

in some areas of the word mass immunisation isn’t possible because of poverty levels and lack of nutrition which makes vaccines dangerous.

67
Q

mass vaccination prgrammes

A

many countries have programs aimed at achieving herd immunity to certain diseases through max vaccination of the population. these are called mass vaccination prgrammes.

68
Q

double-blind protocol

A

members of the group usually are unaware if they are receiving the treatment or the placebo. a trial in which the doctors involved are also of which group is which.

69
Q

group sizes in clinical trials

A

it is important the group is large to increase the reliability of the results obtained. this is because group size can help reduce experimental error and increase the statistical difference.

70
Q

first line of defence examples (non specific)

A
  • skin to act like. physical barrier
  • secretion of stomach acid to kill microbes
  • secretion of mucus by trachea to trap microbes
71
Q

second line of defence examples (non-specific)

A
  • inflammatory response

- phagocytosis

72
Q

third line of defence (specific)

A
  • response of T lymphocytes

- production of antibodies by B-lymphocytes from bone marrow

73
Q

function of B-lymphocyte?

A

they produce antibodies against the antigen which leads to the destruction of the pathogen

74
Q

what is an antigen-antibody complex?

A

antigens bind to antibodies forming an antigen-antibody complex, inactivating the pathogen.

75
Q

examples of antigens?

A 
bacterium
viruses 
toxins
chemicals 
cells
76
Q

vasodilatation

A

Vasodilation caused by relaxation of smooth muscle cells in arteries causes an increase in blood flow. When blood vessels dilate, the blood flow is increased due to a decrease in vascular resistance. Therefore, dilation of arteries and arterioles leads to an immediate decrease in arterial blood pressure and heart rate

77
Q

clonal population

A

a population of identical cells produced by one parent cell, most of the clonal population fights the infection while a few remain as memory cells.

78
Q

adjuvant

A

an adjuvant is a substance which makes the vaccine more effective

79
Q

clonal selection theory

A

when a lymphocyte with membrane receptors that match an antigen on an invading pathogen arrives in the damaged area it is selected by binding with the antigen. the lymphocyte then undergoes repeated cell divisions to make many identical copies of itself known as clonal population

80
Q

how does apoptosis work?

A

the cells release proteins which diffuse into the infected cell and then release self-destructive enzymes. these break down of the cell’s DNA and vital proteins causing the cell to die.

81
Q

antigen-presenting cell

A

once a phagocyte has captured and destroyed an invading pathogen. it normally presents fragments of the pathogens antigen at its surface. these are known as antigen presenting cell.

82
Q

self antigen

A

each persons body cells are different because they posses a combination of cell surface proteins (known as a person’s antigen signature).

83
Q

difference between the primary and secondary response to a pathogen which has already entered the body before?

A

is faster and greater

84
Q

what help are memory cells when exposed to the same antigen for a second time?

A

memory cells already know how to deal with the pathogen and can destroy it before it has a chance to cause any problems

85
Q

autoimmunity

A

autoimmunity is when a person’s T cells launch an attack their self antigens, this can cause autoimmunity diseases

86
Q

examples of autoimmunity diseases

A

type 1 diabetes, MS and HIV

87
Q

how are the molecules on B lymphocytes specific?

A

they are specific because of the specific receptors on the membrane of lymphocytes

88
Q

how do lymphocytes respond to pathogens?

A

they respond to specific antigens on invading pathogens

89
Q

what is a reverberating neural pathway?

A

a pathway which links with neurons later in the pathway to neurons earlier in the pathway, which sends the impulses back through the pathway.

90
Q

when are neurotransmitters removed from the synaptic cleft?

A

immediately following the passing on of any impulse

91
Q

what are two ways neurotransmitters can be removed from the synaptic cleft?

A

enzyme degradation

reuptake of neurotransmitters

92
Q

what is the reuptake of neurotransmitters?

A

neurotransmitters are taken back up directly by the presynaptic membrane

93
Q

what are agonistic drugs?

A

they mimic neurotransmitters by binding with and stimulating receptors at a synapse and can therefore enhance the action of these.

94
Q

what are antagonistic drugs?

A

they block the action of neurotransmitters by binding with receptors at a synapse and preventing nerve impulses passing synapses.

95
Q

what is an inhibitory signal?

A

signal that affects a synaptic receptor but isnt passed on

96
Q

what is an excitatory signal?

A

signal that affects a receptor and which can be passed on

97
Q

reward pathway

A

neural pathway that produces pleasure

98
Q

what are some problems affecting herd immunity?

A

poverty levels and malnourishment prevent herd immunity and some parents reject the vaccine out of fear it will harm them

human biology (6 decks)

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