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immunology Flashcards

1
Q

phagocytosis

A

phagocytes recognise the cell and destroy them using phagocytosis

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2
Q

stages of phagocytosis

A

pathogen is detected by phagocyte

after being detected pathogen is engulfed into a vesicle inside the phagocyte

lysosome fuse with vesicle and release digestive enzyme which destroys the already engulfed pathogen

digested products diffuses into the the cytoplasm of phagocyte providing nutrition

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3
Q

inflammatory response

A

response by cells to damage or infection involving the release of histamine from mast cells and accumulation of phagocytes in a damaged area. also involves cytokines and vasodialation.

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4
Q

where is histamine released from?

A

mast cells

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5
Q

non-specific body defence methods

A

physical barriers
phagocytosis
production of chemical secretions
inflammatory response

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6
Q

histamine

A

histamine is released by mast cells causing vasodilation and increased capillary permeability. the increased blood flow leads to an accumulation of phagocytes and clotting elements at the site of infection

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7
Q

lysosome

A

vesicle within a phagocyte that contains digestive enzymes that destroys enzymes that destroys pathogens during phagocytosis

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8
Q

mast cells

A

cells that produce histamine in response to tissue damage

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9
Q

what is a non-specific defence?

A

general response to infection

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10
Q

pathogen

A

bacteria, viruses or other organisms which can cause disease

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11
Q

production of chemical secretions

A

releases of substances such as mucus, tears and saliva and stomach acid to help fight pathogens

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12
Q

physical barriers

A

closely packed epithelial cells in undamaged skin and inner linings of the digestive and respiratory systems; protects against entry of pathogens. they are found in these places because these are vulnerable sites of the body which come into contact with the enviroment

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13
Q

cytokines

A

they are protein molecules that act as a signal to specific white blood cells causing them to accumulate at the site of infection

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14
Q

what causes the area to be swollen , red and inflamed during the inflammatory response

A

the additional blood supply makes the injured area red and inflamed and the swelling is caused by the capillary walls becoming more permeable which causes them yto leak fluid into neighbouring tissues

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15
Q

why is the inflammatory response beneficial

A

an accumulation of phagocytes show up at the damaged tissue

rapid delivery of blood clotting chemicals to the injured area stops the loss of blood and prevents further infection and makes the start of the tissue repair process

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16
Q

where are mass cells produced

A

mass cells are produced from the same stem cells as white blood cells

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17
Q

phagocyte

A

phagocytes are white blood cells that recognise pathogens and destroy them

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18
Q

what are cytokines produced by

A

they are produced by phagocytes

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19
Q

immunity

A

immunity is the ability of the body to resist infection by a pathogen or destroy the organism if it succeeds in infecting and invading the body

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20
Q

allergy

A

in allergy B lymphocytes become hypersensitive to normally harmless antigens such as those on pollen and nuts.

the hypersensitive response produces the allergic reaction of conditions such as hay fever and peanut allergy

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21
Q

what are lymphocytes?

A

lymphocytes are the white blood cells that are involved in the specific immune response

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22
Q

what do lymphocytes respond to?

A

lymphocytes respond to specific antigens on invading pathogens

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23
Q

what makes a lymphocyte specific to one antigen?

A

lymphocytes have a single type of membrane receptor which is specific for one antigen.

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24
Q

clonal population

A

antigen binding leads to repeated lymphocyte division resulting in the formation of a clonal population of identical lymphocytes

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25
what are the two types of lymphocytes?
B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes
26
B lymphocyte cause...
allergies
27
T lymphocytes cause...
autoimmune diseases
28
autoimmune disease
immune system failure can cause an immune response by T cells to self antigens present in the body. the attack on the bodys own cells by the lymphocytes causes the symptoms of autoimmune disease such as type 1 diabetes and rheumatoid arthritis.
29
herd immunity
herd immunity is the idea that if a large percentage of people are immunised against a disease that is spread from person to person then that protects those who aren’t immunised.
30
antigenic variation
mechanism by which a pathogen alters its antigens to avoid a host immune response via memory cells
31
influenza
viral infection that can become pandemic
32
how do vaccines work
an antigen that has been made harmless to produce an immune response and memory cells
33
clinical trial
method of obtaining data about new drugs, vaccines or other treatments
34
randomised trials
methods of reducing bias in clinical trials by eliminating the effects caused by variables such as age or gender of the participants
35
placebo controlled trials
clinical trials in which a random group of participants is given a blank rather than the treatment under trial
36
double blind trials
clinical trials in which neither participant or doctor know which participants are given the treatments and which are the control group
37
HIV (human immunodeficiency virus)
HIV attacks and destroys T lymphocytes. HIV causes the depletion of T lymphocytes which leads to the development of acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS).
38
AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome)
individuals with AIDS have a weakened immune system and are more vulnerable to opportunistic infections due to HIV infection
39
apoptosis
programmed cell death
40
specific immune response
activity of the immune system to a particular pathogen
41
T lymphocyte
type of white blood cell, some kill infected cells while others stimulate the immune response
42
B lymphocyte
white blood cell with specific cell surface responses, secretes antibodies into blood and lymph
43
what do phagocytes detect?
surface antigens on a pathogen and then move towards it
44
phagocytes engulf the invader by...
infolding of the cell membrane to create a vacuole
45
what is pus is an accumulation of
dead bacteria and lymphocytes
46
what is the role of lysosomes in the phagocytes cytoplasm
fuse with the vacuole and release digestive enzymes to destroy the invader
47
memory cells
some lymphocytes produced by clonal selection survive long term as memory cells
48
antigen
often a protein located on the surface of cells that trigger a specific immune response also known as any foreign molecule that is detected by a lymphocyte
49
what are used in vaccines?
- inactivated pathogen toxins - dead pathogens - weakened pathogens
50
immunisation
the process by which a person develops immunity to a disease causing organism
51
active immunity
protection gained as a result of the persons body producing its own antibodies
52
naturally acquired active immunity
when the person becomes immune by natural means e.g. surviving the infection
53
artificially acquired active immunity
when the person has received a vaccination to acquire immunity
54
herd immunity threshold
percentage of immune individuals in a population above which a disease no longer manage to presisr
55
antigenic variation
when pathogens can change their antigens and therefore avoid the immunological memory e.g influenza
56
placebo effect in clinical trials
a control group receiving a "placebo control" treatment (a 'blank' vaccine/drug)
57
clinical trials involve....
testing on animals in the lab first snd once protocals have been approved then testing on humans can take place
58
clinical trials are used to...
establish safety and effectiveness of a vaccine or drug before they are licensed for use
59
sample group size is important in clinical trials to...
reduce the magnitude of experimental error and establish statistical significance between the results
60
where do cytokines get released from?
phagocytes
61
B lymphocytes produce?
antibodies into the blood which is then carried to the infected tissue
62
B lymphocytes act by...
recognising and binding to antigens to activate pathogens
63
what do T lymphocytes do?
they destroy infected body tissues
64
How do T lymphocytes know which tissue to destroy?
foreign antigen on the cell membrane of the cells the pathogens have infected
65
How do T lymphocytes destroy infected cells?
they release proteins into the cells which makes them produce self destructive enzymes (apoptosis). the remains are then removed by phagocytes
66
problems achieving herd immunity
in some areas of the word mass immunisation isn't possible because of poverty levels and lack of nutrition which makes vaccines dangerous.
67
mass vaccination prgrammes
many countries have programs aimed at achieving herd immunity to certain diseases through max vaccination of the population. these are called mass vaccination prgrammes.
68
double-blind protocol
members of the group usually are unaware if they are receiving the treatment or the placebo. a trial in which the doctors involved are also of which group is which.
69
group sizes in clinical trials
it is important the group is large to increase the reliability of the results obtained. this is because group size can help reduce experimental error and increase the statistical difference.
70
first line of defence examples (non specific)
- skin to act like. physical barrier - secretion of stomach acid to kill microbes - secretion of mucus by trachea to trap microbes
71
second line of defence examples (non-specific)
- inflammatory response | - phagocytosis
72
third line of defence (specific)
- response of T lymphocytes | - production of antibodies by B-lymphocytes from bone marrow
73
function of B-lymphocyte?
they produce antibodies against the antigen which leads to the destruction of the pathogen
74
what is an antigen-antibody complex?
antigens bind to antibodies forming an antigen-antibody complex, inactivating the pathogen.
75
examples of antigens?
``` bacterium viruses toxins chemicals cells ```
76
vasodilatation
Vasodilation caused by relaxation of smooth muscle cells in arteries causes an increase in blood flow. When blood vessels dilate, the blood flow is increased due to a decrease in vascular resistance. Therefore, dilation of arteries and arterioles leads to an immediate decrease in arterial blood pressure and heart rate
77
clonal population
a population of identical cells produced by one parent cell, most of the clonal population fights the infection while a few remain as memory cells.
78
adjuvant
an adjuvant is a substance which makes the vaccine more effective
79
clonal selection theory
when a lymphocyte with membrane receptors that match an antigen on an invading pathogen arrives in the damaged area it is selected by binding with the antigen. the lymphocyte then undergoes repeated cell divisions to make many identical copies of itself known as clonal population
80
how does apoptosis work?
the cells release proteins which diffuse into the infected cell and then release self-destructive enzymes. these break down of the cell's DNA and vital proteins causing the cell to die.
81
antigen-presenting cell
once a phagocyte has captured and destroyed an invading pathogen. it normally presents fragments of the pathogens antigen at its surface. these are known as antigen presenting cell.
82
self antigen
each persons body cells are different because they posses a combination of cell surface proteins (known as a person's antigen signature).
83
difference between the primary and secondary response to a pathogen which has already entered the body before?
is faster and greater
84
what help are memory cells when exposed to the same antigen for a second time?
memory cells already know how to deal with the pathogen and can destroy it before it has a chance to cause any problems
85
autoimmunity
autoimmunity is when a person's T cells launch an attack their self antigens, this can cause autoimmunity diseases
86
examples of autoimmunity diseases
type 1 diabetes, MS and HIV
87
how are the molecules on B lymphocytes specific?
they are specific because of the specific receptors on the membrane of lymphocytes
88
how do lymphocytes respond to pathogens?
they respond to specific antigens on invading pathogens
89
what is a reverberating neural pathway?
a pathway which links with neurons later in the pathway to neurons earlier in the pathway, which sends the impulses back through the pathway.
90
when are neurotransmitters removed from the synaptic cleft?
immediately following the passing on of any impulse
91
what are two ways neurotransmitters can be removed from the synaptic cleft?
enzyme degradation | reuptake of neurotransmitters
92
what is the reuptake of neurotransmitters?
neurotransmitters are taken back up directly by the presynaptic membrane
93
what are agonistic drugs?
they mimic neurotransmitters by binding with and stimulating receptors at a synapse and can therefore enhance the action of these.
94
what are antagonistic drugs?
they block the action of neurotransmitters by binding with receptors at a synapse and preventing nerve impulses passing synapses.
95
what is an inhibitory signal?
signal that affects a synaptic receptor but isnt passed on
96
what is an excitatory signal?
signal that affects a receptor and which can be passed on
97
reward pathway
neural pathway that produces pleasure
98
what are some problems affecting herd immunity?
poverty levels and malnourishment prevent herd immunity and some parents reject the vaccine out of fear it will harm them

human biology (6 decks)

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