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PHGY 209 > Immunology > Flashcards

Immunology Flashcards

1
Q

How is the scattered immune system around the body connected

A

By blood and lymph

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2
Q

What is the immune system’s role in protection

A
  1. Protects the entire body at all times
  2. From pathogens
  3. From altered body cells (cancer)
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3
Q

How can our immune system turn on us

A

Autoimmune disorders
Foreign tissues: transplant or graft

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4
Q

What are the two types of immunity

A

Non-specific/innate and specific/adaptive immunity

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5
Q

What is the body’s first line of defense

A

Non-specific/innate

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6
Q

Which response does not need to recognize the pathogen and why

A

Non-specific/innate because it’s the same response every time it sees a pathogen

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7
Q

Which response requires the recognition of the pathogen

A

Specific/adaptive

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8
Q

What happens to the response when the adaptive immune system sees the same pathogen again

A

It’s a faster response

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9
Q

What are the three types of discoveries in science

A

Accidents of nature, leaps of faith, serendipity (happy accidents)

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10
Q

What are the components of the immune system

A

Lymphoid organs, immune cells and secretions of immune cells

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11
Q

What are the two types of lymphoid organs

A

Primary lymphoid organs and secondary lymphoid organs

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12
Q

What are primary lymphoid organs

A

Sites where stem cells divide and immune cells develop

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13
Q

What are secondary lymphoid organs

A

Sites where most immune responses occur

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14
Q

What are the immune cells

A

Leukocytes

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15
Q

What are the two primary lymphoid organs

A

Bone marrow (yolk sac and fetal liver in embryo)
Thymus

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16
Q

What happens in bone marrow

A

Blood cells are produced here: B cells and immature T cells and where B-cells mature

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17
Q

What is in the thymus and what happens in it

A

Contains T cells, scattered dendritic cells, epithelial cells and macrophages

Site where T cells mature, atrophies after maturity

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18
Q

Where is the thymus located

A

Above the heart

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19
Q

What are the 3 secondary lymphoid organs and what is their main function

A

Lymph nodes, spleen, lymphoid nodules

Sites where most immune responses occur

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20
Q

What are lymph node characteristics

A

Scattered throughout the body
Filter microbes
Macrophages in nodes phagocytize microbes that enter lymph

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21
Q

What are spleen characteristics

A

Largest lymphoid organ
Removes microbes and old erythrocytes

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22
Q

What are lymphoid nodules characteristics

A

Tonsils
Peyer’s patches and MALT
Appendix

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23
Q

Where do the immune cells travel in the body

A

Travel in the blood and lymphatic vessels (90% circulatory 10% lymphatic)

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24
Q

What are the types of T cells and what lineage do they come from

A

Come from lymphocytes

Cytotoxic T-cells CD8+
Helper T cells CD4+
Regulatory T-cells CD4+

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25
Q

What lineage do macrophages and dendritic cells come from

A

Myeloid (neutrophil, monocyte, eosinophil, basophil)

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26
Q

Function of eosinophils

A

Destroy parasites and participate in immediate hypersensitivity reactions

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27
Q

Function of basophils

A

Release a variety of chemicals, histamine, prostaglandins (similar to mast)

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28
Q

Functions of mast cells

A

Release chemicals involved in inflammation, histamine

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29
Q

Function of neutrophils

A

Phagocytes, releases chemicals involved in inflammation

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30
Q

Function of monocytes

A

Become macrophages and dendritic cells (phagocytes) after entering into tissues

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31
Q

Function of lymphocytes

A

Serve as recognition cells in specific immune responses and are essential for all aspects of these responses

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32
Q

Function of B cells

A

Initiate antibody-mediated immune responses by binding specific antigens to the B cell’s plasma membrane receptors, which are immunoglobulins

Upon activation: transformed into plasma cells which secrete antibodies

Present antigen to helper T-cells

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33
Q

What is the function of cytotoxic T cells

A

Binds to antigens on plasma membrane of target cells and directly destroys the cells

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34
Q

Function of Helper T cells

A

Secrete cytokines that help activate B cells, cytotoxic T cells, NK cells and macrophages

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35
Q

Function of NK cells

A

Bind directly and non specifically to virus-infected cells and cancer cells and kill them

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36
Q

Difference between cytotoxic T cells and NK cells

A

NK = non-specific
CT = specific

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37
Q

Function of plasma cells

A

Secrete antibodies

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38
Q

Where are plasma cells produced

A

Peripheral lymphoid organs; differentiate from B cells during immune responses

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39
Q

Function of macrophages

A
  1. Phagocytosis
  2. Extracellular killing via secretion of toxic chemicals
  3. process and present antigens to helper T cells
  4. Secrete cytokines involved in inflammation, activation and differentiation of helper T cells and systemic responses to infection or injury
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40
Q

Function of dendritic cells

A

Phagocytosis, antigen presentation (professional APC)

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41
Q

Where are dendritic cells found

A

Almost all tissues and organs; microglia in the central nervous system

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42
Q

What cells are produced in the bone marrow

A
  1. neutrophils
  2. Basophils
  3. Eosinophils
  4. Monocytes
  5. Lymphocytes (mature in bone marrow (B and NK) and thymus (T cells) but activated in peripheral lymphoid organs)
  6. Macrophages (reside in almost all tissues and organs)
  7. Mast cells (reside in almost all tissues and organs)
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43
Q

What is non-specific/innate immunity

A

Ability of the body to defend against microbes and other foreign substances without recognition of the invading pathogen

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44
Q

What is the innate first line of defense

A

Physical barriers

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45
Q

What are innate second line of defense

A

Cellular and hum oral factors

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46
Q

What are the physical barriers in the first line of defense

A

Skin
Additional physical and mechanical barriers
Chemical and microbiological barriers

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47
Q

In what way does skin as a first line of defence create an unpleasant environment for microorganisms

A

Water resistant, prevents entry of foreign substances

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48
Q

In what way do additional physical and mechanical barriers as a first line of defence create an unpleasant environment for microorganisms

A

Tight junctions in epithelia, mucus, hair and cilia

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49
Q

In what way do chemical and microbiological barriers act as a first line of defence create an unpleasant environment for microorganisms

A

Secretions (sebum, lysozyme, gastric juice)
Normal flora (tears and saliva)

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50
Q

When are second lines of defense used

A

If barriers are breached

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51
Q

Does the second line of defense in innate immunity have memory

A

No

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52
Q

What are the humoral factors in the second line of defense

A

Inflammation and fever
Antimicrobial substances (acute phase reactants like cytokines and complement)
Interferons

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53
Q

What are the cellular factors in the second line of defense in innate immunity

A

Phagocytic cells (neutrophils, macrophages, dendritic cells)
Cells with inflammatory mediators (basophils, mast cells, eosinophils)
Natural killer cells

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54
Q

Which cells are involved in inflammation

A

Neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils, macrophages and mast cells

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55
Q

Which cells are involved in phagocytosis

A

Neutrophils, macrophages and dendritic cells

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56
Q

Which cells release cytokines

A

Macrophages Helper T cells

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57
Q

What are the 4 distinct signs and symptoms of inflammation

A

Redness
Heat
Pain
Swelling

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58
Q

What are the 3 stages in inflammation

A
  1. vasodilation
  2. Emigration of phagocytes
  3. tissue repair
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59
Q

Why is vasodilation an important part of inflammation

A
  1. Widening of blood vessels allows more blood flow to the site
  2. Increased permeability of capillaries allows substances to go to the damaged site
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60
Q

What do humoral substances discourage and how

A

Microbial growth or spread of pathogens

Interferons, complement and iron binding proteins

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61
Q

What is the function of type 1 interferon

A

Prevents viral replication

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62
Q

What is a complement

A

A large family of plasma proteins with multiple functions (30 different plasma proteins participate in the cascades

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63
Q

What can complement activation lead to

A
  1. Recruitment of inflammatory cells
  2. Opsonization of pathogens
  3. Killing of pathogens
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64
Q

What is an example of an iron binding protein and what does it do

A

Transferrin: keeps iron away from an infection to prevent dividing

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65
Q

What are natural killer cells (NK cells)

A

A class of lymphocytes, similar to cytotoxic T cells

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66
Q

What is the function of natural killer cells

A

They target virus-infected cells and cancer cells

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67
Q

Similarities between NK cells and cytotoxic T cells

A

They attack and kill these target cells directly after biding to them

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68
Q

Differences between NK cells and cytotoxic T cells

A

NK cells are not antigen specific and do not need to recognize a specific antigen

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69
Q

What do all normal uncleared body cells express and what is it recognized by

A

MCH class 1 proteins that are recognized by the NK cells (won’t kill the cell)

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70
Q

When will the NK cell be activated and release agents that kill a cell

A

When a cell does not have or has an altered MHC class 1 protein

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71
Q

What happens t old RBCs

A

They are phagocytosed in the spleen

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72
Q

What do phagocytes do

A

Non-specifically engulf microbial invaders

73
Q

What are the types of microbial invaders

A

Fixed-tissue macrophages
Neutrophils

Monocytes-macrophages and dendritic cells

74
Q

Steps of phagocytosis and intracellular destruction of a microbe

A
  1. Endocytosis of microbe from outside of cell
  2. Phagosomes formation
  3. Lysosome combines with phagosomes to form phagolysosome
  4. Release of end products into or out of cell
75
Q

How does the phagocyte recognize microbes

A

detects unique, conserved structures that are essential to microbial physiology (molecular signatures of infection)

Pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs)

76
Q

How are PAMPs recognized by the immune system

A

By immune system receptors called pattern recognition receptors including Toll-like receptors on the surface of the macrophage

77
Q

What are the types of PAMPs

A
  1. Lipopolysaccharide of gram negative bacteria
  2. Peptidoglycan of gram positive bacteria
78
Q

What are toll-like receptors

A

A family of highly conserved transmembrane receptors essential for microbial recognition via PAMPs

79
Q

What are the types of toll-like receptors

A

Extracellular domain for recognition of pathogens
Intracellular signalling domain

80
Q

What starts the process of inflammation

A

Neutrophils signals more neutrophils to go to site of infection
Macrophage TLR
Bacteria PAMPs activate macrophage

81
Q

What are the three steps of emigration of phagocytes

A

Chemotaxis
Marginations
Diapedesis

82
Q

What are chemotaxis and the types of chemotaxis

A

Chemically stimulated movement of phagocytes

Chemokines/chemoattractants (chemicals that attract phagocytes)

83
Q

What is margination if emigration of phagocytes

A

Sticking to endothelial cells

84
Q

What is diapedesis in emigration of phagocytes

A

Phagocytes move across capillary wall

85
Q

What happens to neutrophils in the process of killing bacteria

A

They die

86
Q

What are Neutrophil extracellular traps

A

Made of processed chromatin bound to granular and selected cytoplasmic proteins which come from lyses neutrophils

87
Q

Why are neutrophil extracellular traps sticky

A

To trap bacteria in place

88
Q

What is pus made of

A

A mixture of dead bacteria and neutrophils

89
Q

What is an immunogen

A

Material that induces an immune response

90
Q

What are the characteristics on an antigen

A
  1. Can be the whole cell or a part of a cell
  2. Can be non microbial
91
Q

What are examples of non-microbial antigens

A

Pollen, egg whites, incompatible blood cells, transplanted tissues

92
Q

What is an epitope

A

The part of the antigen that is recognized by the immune cells

93
Q

What happens to the dendritic cell after it picks up bacteria

A

Goes back through lymphatic system and not capillaries

94
Q

How does innate immunity shift to adaptive immunity

A

Via antigen presentation by phagocytes

95
Q

What is specific/adaptive immunity and what are the types

A

Mediated by antibodies or cells
1. Humoral (antibody-mediated immunity)
2. Cell-mediated immunity

96
Q

What is the adaptive immunity humoral aspects

A

Involves B cells
- Transform into plasma cells
- Synthesize and secrete antibodies
- Memory B cells

97
Q

What are the aspects of adaptive immunity cell mediated immunity

A

Involves cytotoxic T cells
Kill infected body cells, cancer cells, foreign cells

98
Q

What are the two molecular classes of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC)

A
  1. MHC-I expressed on all uncleared cells
  2. MHC-II expressed on antigen presenting cells
99
Q

What types of people have the same MHCs on their cells

A

Only identical twins

100
Q

When do T-cell receptors recognize antigens

A

Only when they are associated with MHC-II proteins (part of the antigen presentation process)

101
Q

What are the steps of an antigen presenting cell engulfing an exogenous

A
  1. Ingest antigen
  2. Digestion into peptide fragments
  3. Synthesize and package MHC-II molecules
  4. Bind peptide fragments to MHC-II
  5. Insert antigen-MHC-II complexes on plasma membrane
102
Q

What are two antigen characteristics

A

Reactivity: antigen binds specifically to the antigen that provoked it
Immunogenicity: can provoke an immune response by producing antibody to that antigen

103
Q

What are antigen presenting cells (APC)

A

MHC-II + antigen
1. Interdigitating dendritic cell/professional APC
2. Macrophage
3. B lymphocyte (B Cell)

104
Q

What is specific/adaptive immunity (definition)

A

Ability of the body to defend against specific microbes and foreign substances, involves memory from previously encountered antigens

105
Q

What cells are involved in specific/adaptive immunity

A

B and T cells (recognize specific foreign material to be attacked)

106
Q

What is an antigen

A

Any molecule that can trigger an adaptive immune response against itself or the cell bearing it

107
Q

What are the three stages of a typical adaptive immune response

A
  1. Recognition of an antigen by lymphocytes
  2. Lymphocyte activation
  3. Attack launched by the activated lymphocytes and their secretions
108
Q

What cells are involved in the adaptive humoral response and what do they do

A

B cells

Transform into plasma cells and produce and secrete antibodies
Use antibodies and complement to kill

109
Q

What cells are involved in the adaptive cell mediated immunity and what do they do

A

Cytotoxic T cells

Kill infected cells

110
Q

How can biological processes shut off controls (which is necessary)

A

In immune response this involves displacement of CD28 from B7 by CTLA4 or PD-1

111
Q

What are the events required for the activation of Helper T Cells

A
  1. Specific recognition (MHC-II + peptide on APC - T cell receptor on T helper)
  2. Co-reception (CD28 on APC and B7 on T helper)
  3. Cytokine release from APC (stimulates T helper cell)
112
Q

How does the activation of B cells in secondary lymphoid organs done

A

APC activates T helper cell
T helper cell releases cytokines
CD40 receptors
B cell sees antigen and gets activated by cytokines

113
Q

What group are antibodies part of

A

Group of proteins called globulins (immunoglobulins Ig)

114
Q

What is the structure of antibodies

A

Contain 4 polypeptide chains
- Two identical heavy chains
-Two identical light chains

115
Q

What are the two distinct regions with heavy and light chains

A
  1. Variable region
  2. Constant region
116
Q

What is the variable site of an antibody

A

Antigen binding site (FAB region)

117
Q

What is the constant region of an antibody

A

Same in all antibodies of a class (FC region)

118
Q

What are he 5 classes of antibodies

A

IgG, IgA, IgM, IgD, IgE

119
Q

What are the characteristics of IgGs

A

Most numerous, cross the placenta, move to all parts of the body

120
Q

What are the characteristics of IgA

A

Found in MALT, breast milk (most effective at fighting bacteria)

121
Q

What are the characteristics of IgM

A

First formed, complement activation (complement cascade)

122
Q

What are the characteristics of IgD

A

Prenatal

123
Q

What are the characteristics of IgE

A

Allergy response

124
Q

What are the aspects of antibody-mediated immunity

A

It is carried out by B cells
It undergoes clinal selection to produce things

125
Q

In the presence of a microbe, where do B cells in anti by mediated immunity get activated

A

Spleen, lymphoid nodule or lymph nodes

126
Q

What does antibody mediated immunity undergo colonial selection to produce

A

Plasma cells which secrete specific antibodies
Memory cells which allow faster response if antigen is seen again

127
Q

How can antibody immunity be acquired

A

Actively or passively

128
Q

What is actively acquired antibody immunity

A

The person’s own immune system responds to microbe, long lasting protection (memory cells are involved)

129
Q

What are the types of active antibody immunity

A

Natural (develops when a person is exposed to an antigen by chance)

Artificial (develops when a person is purposefully exposed to an antigen ex: flu vaccine)

130
Q

What is passive antibody immunity

A

The person receive antibodies from another person or animal temporary protection NO memory cells are involved

131
Q

What are the types of passive antibody immunity

A

Natural: IgG from mother to fetus across placenta, IgA in breast milk

Artificial: Receive serum containing antibodies from person or animal that has been vaccinated

132
Q

What is the resistance in active immunity due to

A

The body’s contact with microorganisms, their toxins or other antigenic components (from an infection or vaccine)

133
Q

What could a vaccine consist of

A

Small quantities of living or dead pathogens
Small quantities of toxins or harmless antigenic molecules derived from the microorganism or its toxin

134
Q

What are the functions of antibodies

A
  1. neutralizing antigen
    Agglutination of antigens
    Precipitation of antigens
    Activating complement
    Opsonization
    Antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity
135
Q

What does neutralizing an antigen by an antibody entail

A

Antibody binding to toxin prevents us from being infected

136
Q

What does agglutination of an antigen by an antibody entail

A

Glueing them together so that the microbes are easier to phagocytose

137
Q

What does precipitating an antigen by an antibody entail

A

Facilitating phagocytosis

138
Q

What does activating complement by antibody entail

A

First complement protein inactive until it binds to microbe that sets off cascade of activity to eventually produce membrane attack complex

139
Q

What does Opsonization by an antibody entail

A

Making the microbe more apparent to phagocyte

140
Q

How is antibody dependent cellular cytotoxic done by

A

Via cytotoxic T cells

141
Q

How must lymphocytes gain immunocompetence

A

Develop antigen receptors

142
Q

What do B cells produce

A

Antibodies

143
Q

What do T cells produce

A

Cytotoxic T cells, CD8+ cells, Helper T cells and CD4+ cells

144
Q

What does it mean for lymphocytes to gain immunocompetence

A

They must develop antigen receptors

145
Q

How do lymphocytes gain immunocompetence (2 steps)

A

1: RAGs (recombination activating genes)
2: TdT (terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase) which adds single or multiple nucleotides at ends

146
Q

Why is there a higher concentration of IgGs over IgMs after second infection

A

IgM’s are produced first and are best for activating complement system but not best for moving around the body because of large size

147
Q

Under normal circumstances, will the body create antibodies to self antigens

A

No

148
Q

What is important in tissue/organ transplant rejection

A

MHC (major histocompatibility complex)

149
Q

Which kinds of people do not have unique MHCs

A

Identical twins

150
Q

When does immune tolerance develop and why

A

Fetal and early postnatal life because of colonial deletion or colonial inactivation of cells that match body antigens

151
Q

What must T cells be able to recognize and what happens if they can’t

A

MHC class II molecules

Will be destroyed if they can’t

152
Q

What should T cells not recognize and what will happen if they do

A

Self proteins, MHC-class I molecules

Destroyed

153
Q

What percentage of T cells produced will be destroyed

A

95%

154
Q

What are endogenous antigens produced by

A

Body cells

155
Q

What are the steps of infected or antigen cells

A

Synthesis of molecules
Binding of molecules
Packaging of antigen complexes
Insertion of antigen complexes int plasma membrane

156
Q

What are the types of molecules infected body cells synthesize, bind, etc

A

MHC-I molecules

157
Q

What is an exogenous antigen

A

Foreign material, comes from outside of the body

158
Q

What types of molecules do antigen presenting cells synthesize, bind, etc

A

MHC-II molecules

159
Q

How does and APC activate B cells or cytotoxic T cells

A

By the release of cytokines

160
Q

What are the factors that alter resistance to infection

A
  1. Protein-calorie malnutrition (greatest contributor worldwide)
  2. Pre-existing disease (infectious or non infectious can predispose the body to infection)
  3. Sleep deprivation (associated with decreased immune function)
  4. Modest exercise and physical conditioning (net beneficial effects on the immune system and host resistance)
161
Q

What are immunodeficiency diseases resulted from

A

Weak, under active or impaired immune systems

162
Q

What are two types of immunodeficiency diseases

A

SCID (severe combined immunodeficiency disease)
AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome)

163
Q

What is SCID

A

A group of related diseases that arise from an absence of both B and T cells and in some cases NK cells

164
Q

What is AIDS

A

Infects and kills s helper T cells resulting in impaired immune responses to infectious organisms

165
Q

What are examples or harmful immune responses

A

Tissue/Graft rejection
Transfusion reactions
Allergy (hypersensitivity)
Autoimmune disease
Excessive inflammatory response

166
Q

What types of proteins on the graft cells in transplants differ from the recipient

A

MHC-I

167
Q

What kinds of proteins on the macrophages in a transplant differ from the recipient

A

MHC-II

168
Q

What happens in a graft or organ transplant rejection

A

Recipient’s T cells recognize these MHC proteins as foreign and their cytotoxic T cells with the aid of helper T cells kill cells bearing foreign MHCs

169
Q

How can one avoid tissue or organ transplant rejection

A

Radiation to eliminate dividing cells
Drugs that kill actively dividing lymphocytes (decrease T cell population)
Cycloprorine blocks cytokine production from helper T cells

170
Q

How is illness caused in blood transfusion reactions

A

When RBCs are destroyed during blood transfusion

171
Q

Why do erythrocytes lack MHC proteins

A

They dont have a nucleus

172
Q

What structures on RBCs function as antigens

A

Plasma membrane proteins and carbohydrates

173
Q

What are the two types of allergic reactions

A

Immediate hypersensitivity
Delayed Hypersensitivity (12-72 hours after exposure)

174
Q

Where are allergic symptoms usually localized

A

localized to the site of antigen entry

175
Q

What causes anaphylaxis

A

If large amount of mast cells chemicals enter the circulation, systemic symptoms may result and cause severe hypotension and bronchioles contraction

176
Q

How can anaphylaxis cause death

A

Due to circulatory and respiratory failure

177
Q

What is inappropriate immune attack triggered by in some cases

A

Body proteins acting as antigens

178
Q

What is the autoimmune attack mediated by and directed against

A

MB: autoantibodies and self-reactive T cells
DA: body cells that contain these proteins

179
Q

What are examples of autoimmune diseases where inappropriate immune attack is triggered by body proteins acting as antigens

A

Type 1 diabetes Melkite’s
Rheumatoid arthritis
Multiple sclerosis
Myasthenia gravis

PHGY 209 (4 decks)

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