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Immunity And Classification Flashcards

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USMLE® Step 1 flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

The 5 general characteristics to classify bacteria (and example of each)

A
  1. Macroscopic (colony morphology/ growth characteristics)
  2. Biochemical traits (production of certain end products/ use certain substrates/ selective media)
  3. Growth Requirements (anaerobic vs aerobic etc.)
  4. Microscopic (cell morphology/ differential strains)
  5. Specialized tests/ secretion pathways
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2
Q

Seven characteristics associated with colony morphology

A 
“PEETOSS”
Pigmentation 
Edge/margin
Elevation 
Texture
Optical Properties
Size 
Shape
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3
Q

Three biochemical/ metabolic traits

A
  1. Utilization of specific substrates as a nutrient (lactose or citrate as energy source)
  2. Growth on differential/ selective media (hydrolytic patterns on blood agar)
  3. Production of certain end products (fermentation producing alcohol or acid)
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4
Q

Fastidious growth requirements

A

Picky eater- numerous nutrient requirements

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5
Q

Nonfastidious growth requirements

A

Will grow on anything

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6
Q

Microaerophile oxygen requirements

A

Utilizes some O2 but can’t be exposed to too much or will die

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7
Q

Aerotolerant oxygen requirement

A

Can live in O2 but doesn’t need it

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8
Q

Facultative oxygen requirement

A

Can live without oxygen but would grow better with it

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9
Q

Gram stain enables classification based on what?

A

Cell wall structure

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10
Q

Bacilli

A

Rod-shaped

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11
Q

Cocci

A

Spherical shaped

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12
Q

Spirilla

A

Spiral shaped

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13
Q

Vibrio

A

Curved

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14
Q

Spirochete

A

Thin spring, flexible and tightly coiled

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15
Q

Palisade

A

Bacilli lined up along each other like sardines

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16
Q

Coccobacilli

A

Rounded oval rectangular-ish shape

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17
Q

Diplo-bacilli

A

Two rods in a chain

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18
Q

Strepto

A

Three or more in a chain

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19
Q

Staphylo

A

Clusters

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20
Q

Molecular characteristics used for bacterial classification

A

OCR, Nucleic acid sequence analysis, restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP), DNA hybridization, Phage-GFP,

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21
Q

Type 3 Secretion pathway

A

Found in gram negative bacterial only, secretes proteins from cytoplasm into host cell. Contact dependent (injects toxin into host cell directly).
Secretion machinery is needle shaped and secreted proteins are thought to move through a translocation channel

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22
Q

Type 4 secretion pathway

A

Found in gram negative and gram positive, similar to conjugation system (secrets protein and transfers DNA during conjugation) can go bacteria to bacteria or bacteria to eukaryote. ATP dependent

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23
Q

Shortages bacterial secretion pathway

A

Found in gram positive bacteria, covalently attach proteins to cell wall following secretion, assist in survival during infection (attachment is first and most important part of infection)

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24
Q

Injectosome bacterial secretion pathway

A

Found in gram positive bacteria, similar to type 3 and 4 systems of gram negatives

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25
Q

Definition of immunity

A

The ability to ward off disease through body defenses

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26
Q

Characteristics of Innate immunity

A 
Nonspecific resistance
Routine protection 
Defenses against any pathogen
Immediate response with no memory
Refers to whatever defenses are present at the time
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27
Q

Characteristics of adaptive immunity

A 
Pathogen-specific resistance
Acquired during the lifetime 
Requires time to develop (2 exposures)
Involves specialized cells
Has memory
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28
Q

Characteristics of the first line of defense

A

Nonspecific natural barriers that restrict entry or means for physical removal of a pathogen (skin, mucous membranes and their secretions, normal micro flora)

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29
Q

Characteristics of the second line of defense

A

Nonspecific immune defenses that provide rapid local response to pathogen after it has entered the host (natural killer cells and phagocytic white blood cells- macrophages and neutrophils-, inflammation, fever, antimicrobial substances)

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30
Q

Skin chemicals in first line of defense, and their role

A

In perspiration: salt (hypertonic environment, antimicrobial peptides, lysozyme enzymes to destroy bacterial cell wall)
In sebum: keeps skin pliable and less likely to tear, lowers skin pH to a level damaging to most bacteria)

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31
Q

Three layers of mucous membranes and their uses

A
  1. Epithelium (thin, tightly packed outer covering, shedding to carry away microorganisms)
  2. Dendritic cells below epithelium to phagocytize pathogens and goblet/ ciliated columnar cells to remove invaders
  3. Deeper connective layer to support the epithelium- produces required chemicals
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32
Q

Lacrimal apparatus

A

(Tear production) continual washing and blinking to prevent microbes from settling on eye surface, plus lysozyme in tears to break down any particulate matter

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33
Q

Ciliary escalator

A

Cilia on mucous membranes of lower respiratory tract move upwards towards through at 1-3cm/ hour- raised up high enough so you can cough/ sneeze it up

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34
Q

Chemical defenses of mucus

A

Glycoproteins and water, thick, inhibits colonization by preventing critical mass

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35
Q

Chemical defenses of gastric juices

A

Acidic (pH 1-3 destroys most bacteria) contains enzymes and mucus

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36
Q

Chemical defenses of lysozyme

A

Enzyme in most body secretions that degrades peptidoglycan

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37
Q

Chemical defenses of transferrins

A

Iron binding proteins in blood which inhibit bacterial growth by reducing available iron (bacteria have a huge need for iron)

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38
Q

Microbial antagonism

A

Normal micro flora compete for resources with potential pathogens. May even produce antibiotic compounds toxic to non-native species

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39
Q

Eosinophils

A

Fight parasitic worms and are involved in allergic reactions. A type of granulocyte with cytoplasmic granules

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40
Q

Basophils

A

Involved in allergic reactions and inflammation (similar to mast cells, found in tissues) a type of granulocytes (cytoplasmic granules) release histamine and other inflammation causing chemicals from the granules

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41
Q

Neutrophils (PMN’s)

A

Account for most of the leukocytes, usually not seen in tissues except during inflammation. Phagocytize and digest engulfed materials

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42
Q

Lymphocyte (B and T cells)

A

Single nucleus (mostly nucleus with not much cytoplasm before differentiation) seen in lymph nodes/ spleen and tonsils and in circulation, participate in adaptive immune response

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43
Q

Monocytes

A

Single nucleus, lots of cytoplasm. Differentiate either into macrophages or dendritic cells. Will phagocytize and digest engulfed materials

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44
Q

Macrophages

A

Present in virtually all tissues. Given names based on what tissue they’re found in.

  1. Alveolar= lung
  2. Kupffer= liver
  3. Microglial= brain
  4. Histocyte= tissue
  5. Langerhans= skin/mucosa
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45
Q

Dendritic cells

A

Branched, in tissues but eventually migrate to lymph infection nodes/ organs. Gather antigen from tissues and present it to lymphocytes that congregate in secondary lymphoid organs, developing an adaptive response

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46
Q

Steps of phagocytosis

A
  1. Chemotaxis
  2. Recognition and attachment
  3. Engulfment
  4. Phagosome maturation/ phagolysosome formation
  5. Destruction and digestion
  6. Formation of residual body
  7. Exocytosis
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47
Q

Chemotaxis (phagocytosis)

A

Phagocytes recruited by chemoattractants produced by phospholipids form injured host cells, chemokines and C5a

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48
Q

Recognition and attachment (phagocytosis)

A

Direct (Pattern recognition receptors to PAMP or DAMP) or indirect (binding to opsonins)

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49
Q

PRR

A

Pattern recognition receptors on macrophages that detect pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMP), or danger-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) aka host cell damage

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50
Q

Three types of PRR’s

A
  1. Toll-like receptors (internal or external antigen receptors) anchored in membranes
  2. NOD-like receptors, found internally only- in cytoplasm. Detect bacterial components indicating the cell has been breached.
  3. RIG-like receptors. Also found internally only- in the cytoplasm. Detect viral RNA, indicating infection. Will produce interferons
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51
Q

Engulfment (phagocytosis)

A

Pseudopods surround and a phagosome is formed

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52
Q

Phagosome maturation and phagolysosome formation (phagocytosis)

A

Endoscopes fuse, lower pH, lysosome brings digestive enzymes

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53
Q

Destruction and digestion (phagocytosis)

A

Toxic ROS and nitric oxide produced, pH decreases, enzymes degrade, defensins damage membrane of invader, lactoferrin ties up iron

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54
Q

Formation of the residual body (phagocytosis)

A

Indigestible material remaining in the phagolysosome

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55
Q

The complement system

A

Helps the ability of antibodies and phagocytic cells to clear pathogens from an organism. Part of innate immune system, but can be brought online by adaptive immune response. Act as a cascade

56
Q

Opsonization (complement activation)

A

C3b complement protein binds to bacterial cells and foreign particles, allows phagocytic cells to engulf more easily

57
Q

Consequences of complement activation

A
  1. Opsonization (C3b binds to pathogens, engulfed more easily)
  2. Inflammatory response (C5a attracts phagocytes and C3a partners to increase blood vessels to become more permeable and for mast cells to release cytokines)
  3. Lysis fo foreign cells (membrane attack complexes are formed out of many complement proteins to insert into the pathogen’s cell membrane and cause all the contents to leak ou)
58
Q

Inflammation definition and signs

A

Nonspecific response to tissue damage from various causes

Characterized by redness, heat, swelling and pain

59
Q

Role of Histamine in inflammation

A

Vasodilation, increased permeability of blood vessels

60
Q

Role of kinins in inflammation

A

Vasodilation, increased permeability of blood vessels

61
Q

Role of prostaglandins in inflammation

A

Regulates intensity of histamine and kinin effects

62
Q

Role of leukotrienes in inflammation

A

Increased permeability of blood vessels, phagocytic attachment

63
Q

Acellular entities that can cause disease in human hosts is/are
A. Bacteria B. Fungi, C. Viruses D. All of the above

A

C. Viruses

64
Q

A biochemical characteristic that could be used to classify a microbe is A. An end or by-product of sugar fermentation B. Production and secretion of toxins C. Both A and B, D. Neither A nor B

A

C. Both A and B

65
Q

The gram stain enable bacteria to be classified based on

A. Macroscopic characteristics B. Staining pattern of the cell wall C. both A and B D. neither A nor B

A

B. Staining pattern of the cell wall

66
Q

Size, margin, texture, and pigmentation are terms used to describe
A. Cell morphology B. Colony morphology C. Antimicrobial susceptibility D. A pathogen’s molecular characteristics

A

B. Colony morphology

67
Q

Which of the following is true?
A. The normal flora never cause disease in a human host
B. The normal flora provides protection against bacterial diseases only
C. the normal flora can protect the host from pathogenic microbes by creating an inhospitable environment
D. Normal flora consists of bacteria only

A

C. the normal flora can protect the host from pathogenic microbes by creating an inhospitable environment

68
Q

The three characteristics of size, shape, and arrangements are usually used to classify…

A

Bacteria

69
Q

Which of the following would be used in microbial classification
A. hemolytic patterns of blood agar
B. Production of an enzyme such as catalase
C. Both a and b
D. Neither a nor b

A

C. Both A and B

70
Q

The patient is considered to be in the disease state when
A. microbial colonization has occurred
B. Microbial growth is rapidly occurring
C. Tissue damage or dysfunction has occurred due to the microbe
D. A microbe has attached

A

C. Tissue damage or dysfunction has occurred due to the microbe

71
Q 
Classifying bacteria using oxygen utilization is an example of
A. Morphological characteristics
B. Biochemical characteristics 
C. Molecular methods
D. All of the above
A

B. Biochemical characteristics

72
Q

Which of the following contributes to protecting the eyes from microbial invasion?
A. Tears contain lysozyme
B. Tears mechanically flush particles from the eyes
C. Both A and B
D. Neither A nor B

A

C. Both A and B

73
Q 
The process of phagocytosis involve all of the following except 
A. Adhesion 
B. Chemotaxis
C. Secretion of cytotoxins
D. Vesicles fusion
A

C. Secretion of cytotoxins

74
Q

First line of defense may be described as
A. Damage resulting in cell lysis
B. The coating of a pathogen by complement
C. Nonspecific leukocytes that secrete toxins onto the surface of virally infected cells
D. Intact skin, mucous membranes, sebum, tears and so forth

A

D. Intact skin, mucous membranes, sebum, tears and so forth

75
Q 
Which cell becomes a macrophage when leaving the blood stream?
A. Neutrophil
B. Basophils
C. Eosinophil
D. Monocytes
A

D. Monocytes

76
Q

The Simmons citrate test allows the user to determine in an organism has the ability to use citrate as its sole carbon source. This test is an example of ________________ Characteristics used for bacterial classification

A

Biochemical

77
Q 
Which of the following is a component of the innate immune response?
A. Phagocytosis
B. Inflammation 
C. Complement
D. All of the above
A

D. All of the above

78
Q 
The skin and mucous membranes are primarily examples of 
A. Chemical barriers
B. Physical barriers
C. Enzymatic barriers
D. None of the above
A

B. Physical barriers

79
Q

Descriptive such as margin, shape, pigmentation and texture are used for…

A

Colony morphology

80
Q

B cells and neutrophils both arise in the ….

A

Bone marrow

81
Q

Cocci shaped bacteria growing in a cluster have a ___________ arrangement

A

Staphylo

82
Q 
Which of the following are examples of polymorphonuclear cells?
A. Macrophages
B. B cells 
C. Neutrophils 
D. Two of the above
A

C. Neutrophils

83
Q

The recognition of pathogens by phagocytic cells is accomplished by interactions between ____________ on pathogens and ____________ on the phagocytic cells

A

PAMP’s; PRR’s

84
Q

How do fevers help and why do they start?

A

Fevers affect the growth rate of mesophilic microbes (slows) giving the immune system more time to act.
Fevers result when pyrogens trigger the hypothalamus to increase the body’s core temperature

85
Q

What are pyrogens? Give examples

A

Substance that cause a fever
- bacterial toxins
Cytoplasmic contents of bacterial released by lysis
Antibody-antigen complexes
Pyrogens released by phagocytes that have phagocytize bacteria (cytokines released by TLR’s- activated macrophages)

86
Q

5 attributes of adaptive immunity

A
  1. Specificity
  2. Inducibility
  3. Clonality (proliferation)
  4. Unresponsiveness to self (tolerance)
  5. Memory
87
Q

Maturation of B- lymphocytes

A

Occurs in the bone marrow

88
Q

Maturation of T-lymphocytes

A

Occurs in the thymus

89
Q

Two types of adaptive immune response

A

Cell-mediated (CMI) and Humoral immune response

90
Q

Cell-mediated immune response definition

A

T-cell mediated, elimination of intracellularly located antigens and cancerous or abnormal cells

91
Q

Humoral immune response definition

A

B-cell mediated (antibody mediated) antibodies function to eliminate extra cellular antigens such as bacteria, toxins, and viruses in bloodstream, tissues and fluids

92
Q

Primary lymphoid organs

A

Where lymphocytes form

Red bone marrow (B and T, B mature) and Thymus (T mature)

93
Q

Lymph components

A

Liquid with similar composition to blood plasma, that leaks from blood vessels into surrounding tissues, and contains white blood cells and antigens from tissues

94
Q

Lymphatic vessels

A

One-way system that conducts lymph from tissues and returns it to the circulatory system

95
Q

Antigen

A

Describes a molecule that reacts specifically with antibody, a B cell receptor or a T cell receptor ( if elicits an immune response= immunogenicity). Proteins typically elicit strong responses

96
Q

Epitomes (antigenic determinants)

A

Antigen’s recognizable 3-dimensional regions

97
Q

Hapten

A

Small molecule which are non-antigenic unless attached to larger carrier molecules

98
Q

Superantigen

A

Antigen which can cause a non-specific immune response

99
Q

Exogenous antigens

A

Include toxins and other components of microbial cell walls, membranes, flagella and pilli

100
Q

Endogenous antigens

A

Produced by microbes that reproduce inside a body’s cell once infected

101
Q

Autoantigens

A

Derived from normal cellular processes and denote a healthy functioning normal body cell

102
Q

MHC class !

A 
Present on all nucleated cells (except blood cells) present endogenous antigens when infected with intracellular pathogens 
— Cells with internal pathogens down regulated the presentation of class I, so will signal killer T-cells to destroy
103
Q

MHC class II

A

For extracellular non-self entities— present on antigen-presenting cells such as macrophages, dendridic cells and B-cells (present the antigens of pathogens it’s phagocytize already)

104
Q

T-lymphocytes

A

Circulate in lymph and blood— T-cell receptor can only bind to PROTEINaceous epitomes associated with an MHC protein

105
Q

Three types of T-lymphocytes

A
  1. Cytotoxic T-lymphocytes (CD8+)
  2. Helper T-lymphocytes (CD4+)
  3. Regulatory T-lymphocyte
106
Q

Cytotoxic T-lymphocyte

A

CD8+
Directly kills other cells
Secretes performing and granzyme

107
Q

Helper T-lymphocytes

A

CD4+
Lynchpin of adaptive immunity
Helps regulate B-cells and cytotoxic T- cells
Includes type 1 and type 2 helper T-cells
Secretes interleukins 2 and 4, and IFN-y

108
Q

Regulatory T-lymphocyte

A 
Repressive adaptive immune responses as negative feedback (disfunction in chronic inflammation)
Secretes cytokines (interleukin 10)
109
Q

6 functions of antibodies

A
  1. Activation of complement and inflammation- activate complement system which results in cell lysis and inflammation
  2. Neutralization
110
Q

5 antibody isotopes

A

IgM, IgG, IgA, IgE, IgD

111
Q

IgM

A

Always first isotope produced in an immune response

Exists in membrane-bound form (monomer) and blood-stream bound pentamer used for agglutination

112
Q

IgG

A

Exists as a monomer, most prevalent and provides long-term protection through all antibody functions. Maternal IgG protects fetus by transporting across fetus and gradually subsiding as baby’s immune system kicks in

113
Q

IgA

A

Can exist as a monomer or a dimer
Secreted form (dimer) important in mucosal immunity, as well as protecting breast-fed infants against intestinal pathogens 🦠
Works mostly through neutralizing toxins and interfering with attachment to host cell
Produced by mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT)

114
Q

IgE

A

Usually really low concentration, and exists as a monomer. Found bound to mast cells and basophils as well as in blood. Usually seen in larger quantities when there is an active parasitic infection or allergy

115
Q

IgD

A

Membrane bound form serves as b-cell receptor, and free in blood. Function not known

116
Q

5 types of immune-response cytokines

A
  1. Interleukins: signal among leukocytes
  2. Interferons: antiviral proteins that may act as cytokines
  3. Growth factors: proteins that stimulate stem cells to divide
  4. Tumor necrosis factor: secreted by macrophages and t-cells to kill tumor cells and regulate immune responses and inflammation
  5. Chemokines: chemotactic cytokines that signal leukocytes to move
117
Q

Two types of cell-mediated immune responses

A
  1. Perforin-granzyme pathway

2. FAS or CD95 pathway

118
Q

Performing-granzyme pathway

A

Cytotoxic t-cell binds to class 1 MHC/ antigen complex on target cell and releases the enzyme complex perforin (Formosa pore) through which secreted granzyme to enter the cell and trigger apoptosis

119
Q

FAS or CD95 pathway

A

Cytotoxic t-cell binds to class 1 MHC/ antigen complex on target cell, and interaction of the ligand on T-cells and receptor on abnormal cells lead to the release of caspase enzymes,which trigger apoptosis

120
Q

Two other outcomes of Cell-mediated immune response

A
  1. Enhancement of macrophage killing ability (^ size, metabolism # of lysosomes, and form giant cells)
  2. Memory T-cells (immediately functional upon subsequent contacts with epitope-MHC complex specific to its TCR)
121
Q

Natural Killer Cells

A

Non-phagocytic granular lymphocytes- bind to Antibodies which coat microbe (antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity) and lyse cell- no specificity. OR recognize that infected cell lack MHC 1, and kill using perforin and granzyme

122
Q

Two types of humoral responses

A

Both antibody immune responses mounted against exogenous pathogens and toxins (only in response to specific pathogens)

  1. T-dependent, requires helper T-cells (proteins)
  2. T independent- can be bound directly to B cells, but only IgM made
123
Q

T-Dependent antigen humoral response

A
  1. B-cell receptor binds to antigen, internalized and processed
  2. Antigen presentation occurs
  3. TCR on helper T-cell bind on B-cell surface, cytokines secreted, B-cell activated
  4. Differentiate into plasma cells (short-lived, produced antibodies) and memory cells (longer-lived, initiates antibody production if antigen is encountered again)
124
Q

T-independent antigens humoral response

A

T-independent antigens can activate B cells without T-helper cells, and epitomes are bound by clusters of B-cell receptors (usually evenly spaced)
Usually results in production of majority IgM antibodies

125
Q

4 Types of acquired immunity and examples

A
  1. Passive naturally acquired: antibodies pass from mother to fetus via placenta or breast milk
  2. Active naturally acquired: antigens/ pathogens exposed to daily/ naturally. Body generates response (mono)
  3. passive artificially acquired: preformed antibodies introduced into body (snake anti-venom) body doesn’t make more of these
  4. Active artificially acquired: antigens introduced in vaccines (immunization) and body generates an immune response to these antigens
126
Q

Attenuated vaccines

A

Uses pathogens reduced in virulence to confer life-long immunity. Can result in mild infections in susceptible individuals

127
Q

Inactivated vaccines

A

Uses inactivated (killed) but whole microbes. Doesn’t produce life-long immunity: requires boosters

128
Q

Subunit vaccines

A

Antigenic fragments of microbes: often require multiple doses to achieve full immunity, and often contains adjuvants (chemicals added to increase effective antigenicity)

129
Q

Toxoid vaccines

A

Chemically/ thermally modified toxins used to stimulate active immunity (antibody mediated only) requires boosters

130
Q

Type 1 hypersensitivity

A

ANAPHYLACTIC Antigen causes an immediate anaphylactic allergic reaction— either systemic (total system impairment) or localized (hay fever, asthma, hives)

131
Q

Type 2 hypersensitivity

A

CYTOTOXIC When cells are destroyed by an immune response: component of most autoimmune diseases. (Like when blood cells with the incorrect antibodies are attacked, from incompatible blood transfusion or fetal red blood cells)

132
Q

Example of Type 2 (Cytotoxic Hypersensitivity)

A

Rh Antigen incompatibility: 85% of humans are Rh Positive, so if Rh- woman is carrying a Rh+ fetus, antibody immune response may be initiated against the fetal cells, causing risky pregnancy and hemolytic diseases

133
Q

Type 3 Hypersensitivity

A

[Immune complex mediated] immune complexes accumulated and become trapped in tissues, and inflammation causes tissue damage. May be localized or systemic: examples are arthritis and lupus

134
Q

Type 4 Hypersensitivity

A

[Delayed or cell mediated] Inflammation 12-24 hours after contact with certain antigens- reflects the time it takes for macrophages/ T-cells to migrate to and proliferate at the site of the antigen (contact dermatitis)

135
Q

Primary immunodeficiency diseases

A

Result from some genetic or developmental defect (develop in infants and young children)
Lack of B-cell and/or T-cell activity (may lack antibodies, may lack a normal thymus, or more severely may be missing both)

136
Q

Acquired immunodeficiency diseases

A

Develop as direct consequence of some other recognized cause later in life. May be caused from SEVERE stress (excess production of corticosteroids), malnutrition/ environmental factors that inhibit the production of B/T cells, or AIDS

Medical Microbiology (11 decks)

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