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HUBS EXAM 3 > immune and lymphatic system > Flashcards

immune and lymphatic system Flashcards

1
Q

what are microorganisms

A

they are very small and exist all around us- in the air, land and water. they are beneficial to us and the environment. however, some pathogens can cause sickness and disease in other organisms.

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2
Q

positive impacts of microorganisms (includes the residential flora of the human body)

A
  • decomposition of dead organic matter
  • make nutrients available
  • perform food/ beverage fermentations
  • some are edible
  • widely used in industry and research
  • produce antibiotics
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3
Q

negative impacts of microorganisms (pathogens that cause infection and disease)

A
  • cause infectious disease
  • contribute to food spoilage
  • cause biodeterioration
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4
Q

normal body locations of flora (areas exposed to the external environment)

A
  • GI tract
  • mouth
  • skin
  • urethra
  • vagina
  • external eye
  • external ear
  • upper respiratory mucosa
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5
Q

abnormal body locations of flora

A
  • bone
  • inner ear
  • blood
  • muscles
  • liver
  • lungs
  • thyroid gland
  • nervous system
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6
Q

what are eukaryotes (type of microorganism)

A

all organisms that contain

  • a cell membrane
  • membrane bound organelles
  • a nucleus surrounded by a nuclear envelope
  • DNA and RNA
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7
Q

what are prokaryotes (type of microorganism)

A

any organisms that contain

  • a cell wall
  • a nucleoid with DNA and RNA
  • contains few organelles
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8
Q

what are acellular organisms (type of microorganism)

A

these organisms

  • lack cellular structure
  • composed of a protein coat surrounding either some DNA or RNA (not both)
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9
Q

examples of eukaryotes

A
  • yeast
  • protozoa
  • algae
  • fungi
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10
Q

examples of prokaryotes

A
  • bacteria

- archaea

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11
Q

example of acellular organisms

A
  • virus
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12
Q

prokaryotes vs. eukaryotes

A
  • the structural difference between means antibiotics can target prokaryotic cells without affecting eukaryotic cells
  • treatment with antibiotics can destroy the infectious bacteria without harming the eukaryotic cells of the infected organism (human)
  • eukaryotes have a cell membrane and prokaryotes have a cell wall
  • eukaryotes have membrane bound organelles and prokaryotes only have a few organelles
  • eukaryotes have DNA and RNA and prokaryotes only have one or the other
  • eukaryotes have a nucleus and prokaryotes have a nucleoid
  • different types of bacteria can be distinguished from each other due to a difference in their bacterial wall- some have an additional outer membrane and some don’t - this can be identified by the gram stain
  • prokaryotic organisms are typically unicellular which most eukaryotic organisms are multicellular
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13
Q

viruses

A
  • organisms that lack a defined cellular structure
  • composed of a protein coat surrounding some genetic material ( either RNA or DNA but not both)
  • viruses require a host cell to continue their existence
  • viruses use the DNA pr RNA, as-well as other organelles, of their host to produce new viruses
  • viruses are ‘obligate intracellular parasites’- they are obligated to use material in other organisms cellular structure to replicate themselves
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14
Q

what is normal flora

A

they are microorganisms which normally inhabit within the human body . the majority of human normal flora are bacteria and they do not cause disease but rather benefit the body

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15
Q

benefits of flora

A
  • prevent the growth of pathogenic microorganisms
  • stimulate the immune system, improving defense against pathogens
  • assisting in processing wastes in the GI (digestive) tract
  • manufacturing vitamin K (for blood clotting) and vitamin B 12 (for making red blood cells) in the digestive tract
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16
Q

what is resident flora

A

microorganisms that are usually in/ on the human body. they are permanent and unchanging and are usually harmless. they are hard to remove from the body

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17
Q

what is transient flora

A

microorganisms that may spend some time in/on the human body, but are not permanent residents. their time on the body is temporary and they are easily removed. they are microorganisms usually picked up from other people/ places and objects and can be easily transferred. some may be pathogens that cause infection

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18
Q

what are pathogens

A

they are microorganisms that cause infection and disease in other organisms.

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19
Q

what is contact transmission (disease transmission)

A

occurs when we come into actual contact with the pathogen itself and can occur in 4 ways;

  • direct contact (with the pathogen in an infected individual e.g. touching warts, body fluids)
  • indirect contact (coming into contact with the contaminated surface e.g. stepping on a nail, touching infected door)
  • droplet contact (coming into contact with aerosols e.g. laughing, coughing, sneezing)
  • vertical transmission (transmission of pathogen from mother to fetus via the placenta or during labour and birth)
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20
Q

what is common vehicle transmission (disease transmission)

A

a non- living carrier of a pathogen from its reservoir to a susceptible host. there are 3 common vehicles for disease transmission

  • waterborne transmission- transmitted via water (cholera, campylobacteria)
  • airborne transmission- transmitted via air (chickenpox, influenza)
  • food borne transmission- transmitted via food (botulism, staphylococcus)
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21
Q

what is vector transmission (disease transmission)

A

a pathogen is transmitted from one host to another via insect carrying the pathogen (biting insects)

22
Q

what methods are used to control microorganisms

A
  1. sterilisation
    - heat (incineration, dry heat, boiling, autoclave)
    - irradiation (use of ultraviolet, gamma or electron beam radiation)
    - filtration (removal of all cells in liquid or gas by passing the liquid or gas through a filtration membrane that cells can not pass through)
    - chemical and gas
  2. disinfection
    - antimicrobial agents that are used on doors and tables to kill some microorganisms but are not safe for skin
  3. antisepsis
    - antimicrobial agents that kill some microorganisms that are safe for skin
  4. antimicrobial drugs
    - chemicals that can inhibit or destroy microorganisms. they must have a selective toxicity
    - antibiotic- chemicals produced naturally by bacteria or fungi
    - synthetic antimicrobial- chemicals produced/ created in a lab by artificial means
    - semi- synthetic antimicrobial- chemicals produced by bacteria or fungi that are modified to enhance attributes
23
Q

what factors can influence the effectiveness of the control method

A
  1. time of exposure
  2. the number of microbes
  3. the type of microorganism
  4. presence of organic matter
24
Q

why are viruses obligate intracellular parasites

A

because they are acellular and cannot perform cellular functions e.g. metabolism, replication, they require host cells to replicate themselves. they therefore invade and take over cells of other organisms, using that organisms genetic material and cellular organelles to make more viruses which continue this process- destroying the host cells in the process

25
Q

why is it harder to generate antimicrobial drugs against viruses or eukaryotic pathogens

A

because viruses invade host cells, any drug would destroy the host cell as-well as the virus and because eukaryotic cells have cells similar structure to humans which makes it harder to distinguish and target the specific pathogenic cells

26
Q

what is innate immunity (immune system)

A

provides generalised first and second line defences against any type of pathogen

  • skin and mucous membranes
  • phagocytosis
  • natural killer cells
  • inflammation and fever
  • antimicrobial and complement proteins
27
Q

what is adaptive immunity (immune system)

A

provides a third line defence against specific pathogens, which it can remember after an initial encounter

  • T- lymphocytes
  • B- lymphocytes
  • antibodies
28
Q

what are antigens

A

a toxin or other foreign substance which induces an immune response in the body, especially the production of antibodies.

29
Q

how does innate and adaptive immunity recognise and remove foreign antigens

A

innate defences are ready to function from birth against any foreign antigen encountered. adaptive immunity is primed when it encounters a specific foreign antigen for the first time. upon initial exposure, adaptive immunity is activated to recognise, target and destroy just that particular foreign antigen. the first foreign antigen encounter results in an attack against the foreign antigen and the production of protective substances that will recognise, remember and more strongly defend the body against future attacks. it does this by the activation of lymphocytes which have developed to recognise specific foreign antigens and interact with each other via 2 branches of adaptive immunity

  • humoral immunity
  • cell-mediated immunity
30
Q

innate immunity; 1st line of defence

A

the body’s first line of defence against potentially harmful pathogens is to prevent it from gaining access to the body in the first place.

  • Surface epithelium on the skin and mucous membrane has multiple layers which are difficult to pass through and which always renew themselves to maintain a barrier.
  • The cells and other structures e.g. hairs of these barriers are designed to trap or resist most microorganisms.
  • Chemicals secreted by the skin and mucous membranes further enhance the ability of these surfaces to provide protection
31
Q

what are the cell secretions in innate immunity; 1st line of defence

  • acids
  • lysozyme
  • transferrin and lactoferrin
  • digestive enzymes
  • mucin
  • defensis
  • sebum and sweat
A
  • Acids- inhibit bacterial growth
  • Lysozyme- an enzyme found in saliva, respiratory and vaginal mucous etc destroys bacteria
  • Transferrin and
    lactoferrin- enzymes secreted in breast milk and mucus which bind to iron, making it unavailable to bacteria for growth
  • Digestive enzymes- protein digestive enzymes which kill many microorganisms
  • Mucin- polypeptide that forms a thick, sticky mucus when dissolved in water that traps microorganisms
  • Defensins- antimicrobial peptide secreted by skin and mucous membrane to control bacteria and fungal colonization in breached areas
  • Sebum and sweat- each help flush the skin, washing away transient flora, and sebum contains anti- bacterial chemicals
32
Q

innate immunity; 2nd line of defence

phagocytosis

A

phagocytic cells engulf and destroy foreign particulates. phagocytosis includes neutrophils and monocytes. monocytes can migrate out of blood vessels to different tissue and turn into macrophages. they are most likely to make first contact with invading pathogens and can kill pathogens directly

33
Q

2nd line of defence; natural killer cells

A

they are part of a small group of large granular lymphocytes that police the body by circulating around in the blood and lymph looking and destroying cancer cells and virus infected body cells. They can eliminate a variety of infected or cancerous cells by contacting the target cell and stimulating the cell to undergo apoptosis (programmed cell death).

34
Q

2nd line of defence; antimicrobial proteins

A

they attack microorganisms directly or hinder their ability to reproduce. there are 2 important antimicrobial proteins

  1. inferons- produced by viral-infected body cells. an infected body cell releases inferons to help other cells from becoming infected. they can also help to activate macrophages while the antiviral proteins may also trigger NK cells.
  2. complement proteins- a group of at least 20 plasma proteins. they circulate in the blood in an inactive state, but can be activated by mechanisms of innate and adaptive immunity. they;
    - enhance the inflammatory response
    - promote phagocytosis
    - lyse microorganisms
35
Q

2nd line of defence; inflammation and fever

A

inflammation is a localized response to tissue damage or infection. it functions to;
- prevent the spread of damaging agents to nearby tissues
- dispose of cell debris and pathogens
- alert the adaptive immune system
- set the stage for tissue repair
the four stages of inflammation are pain, heat, redness and swelling

36
Q

what is humoral immunity

A

it involves the activation of B lymphocytes which produce antibodies that bind to foreign antigens, inactivating them and marking them to be destroyed by phagocytes, complement or T lymphocytes

37
Q

first component of humoral immunity; primary immune response

A

this occurs when the B cell first encounters a foreign antigen for which it has a receptor. the B cell binds to the antigen and displays that antigen to T cells. Helper T cells then activate the B cell by stimulating proliferation (producing clones of itself) of the B cell. once there are many B cells, the clones differentiate to either

  • Plasma B cells- effector cells that produce antibodies over the next 4-5 days then die. the antibodies will recognise the specific antigen and mark them for destruction.
  • Memory B cells- remain in circulation maintaining a stock of antibodies and ready respond if they encounter the same foreign antigen again.
38
Q

second component of humoral immunity; secondary immune response

A

this occurs anytime the same foreign antigen is encountered again. it is a faster and more effective immune response as the memory B cells are already in circulation and can generate a ‘new army’ of plasma B cells within hours. antibody levels will rise to higher levels than occurred during the primary response. these second response antibodies bind the foreign antigens more tightly and remain at high levels in the blood for longer

39
Q

what are antibodies

A

they are blood protein produced by the B cells in response to specific antigens. each different foreign antigen that is encountered can provoke the production of antibodies specific to that antigen only.
Antibodies do not destroy foreign antigens but inactivate them temporarily and tag them for destruction by innate or cell-mediated immunity. they bind to the antigen forming a antigen-antibody complex and then inactivate is via various antibody actions.

40
Q

what is adaptive immunity: cell-mediated branch

A

it is the activation of T lymphocytes which stimulate the activation of B cells and directly attack and destroy foreign antigens or infected body tissue. T cells have must be presented the foreign antigen by APCs (B lymphocytes, macrophages) and can then bind the antigen-MHC complex. once they are activated they generate clones which will differentiate into subtypes of T cells

41
Q

what is the T cells 2 step process when presented a foreign antigen

A
  1. T cell binds to an antigen-MHC complex presented by an APC
  2. T cell binds co-stimulatory signals as a double check of foreign antigen invasion.
42
Q

what do T helper cells do

A

activate B and T cells and enhance innate immunity

43
Q

what do cytotoxic T cells do

A

directly attack and kill infected body cells.

44
Q

what do regulatory T cells do

A

suppress and control the immune response

45
Q

what do memory T cells do

A

they circulate in the lymph and blood as a reservoir of t cells that can later be used in an immune response

46
Q

what does the lymphatic system do

A

it is responsible for filtering and enhancing lymph (fluid passing through the lymphatic vascular network) and activating immune cells and responses in the body.

47
Q

lymph tissue

A 
contains lymphoid (immune) cells such as lymphocytes and reticular cells which produce a reticular fibre network which supports the lymphoid cells
diffuse lymphoid tissue- loose arrangement of lymphoid cells and some reticular fibres found in virtually every body organ 
lymphoid follicles- small, solid bodies of tightly packed lymphoid cells and reticular fibres which generally form part of larger lymph nodes and organs, but also form isolated aggregations in the intestinal wall.
48
Q

lymph vasculature

A

The lymphatic vasculature is a unidirectional channel that returns filtered and enhanced lymph back into the blood.

49
Q

lymph nodes

A
  • filter lymph- macrophages remove and destroy microorganisms and other tissue debris
  • activate the immune system- it is within lymph nodes that lymphocytes circulate and temporarily reside and can be activated to launch a defence against any foreign antigens encountered.
50
Q

lymph capillaries

A

pick up the leaked plasma

51
Q

lymph organs

A
  • tonsils- trap and destroy air, food and water borne microorganisms
  • thymus- T- cell maturation
  • spleen- lymphocyte proliferation, blood filtration and storage of RBC breakdown products

HUBS EXAM 3 (9 decks)

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