ignore this Flashcards
adulthood AND cumulative from previous chapters
1
Q
Understand and describe the characteristics of emerging adulthood, and what makes this stage unique relative to other stages in the lifespan
A
- Ages 18-29
- Newly termed
- Jensen Arnett describes emerging adulthood as the stage of:
- idenity exploration
- instability
- self-focus
- feeling in between
- possibilties
2
Q
Describe key differences between emerging and established adulthood as developmental life stages
A
Established adults occur from around age 30-45
Differences from Emerging adults and estrablished adults are:
- career
- children
- relationships
- living arrangments
3
Q
Describe demographic trends that have changed for young adults over time
A
Delayed Milestones: Marriage, parenthood, and homeownership are happening later due to prolonged education, career-building, and economic challenges.
Higher Education: More young adults are pursuing higher education and advanced degrees, delaying entry into the workforce.
Economic Dependence: Many young adults are living with parents longer due to rising living costs, student debt, and economic uncertainty.
Health & Wellness: Greater focus on mental health and physical well-being, including fitness trends and wellness culture.
4
Q
Describe factors proposed by Arnett as drivers of the “new life stage” of emerging adulthood (see video)
A
Technology: human labor to technology
sexual revolution: birth control broke the age the link between sexuality and reproduction for the first time; marriage rate when UP and sexual relations went DOWN
womens movement: more women in college; more pressure on women to get married quicker
youth movement: 30 is the new 20; adulthood will be ready when you are ready
5
Q
Describe the physical development of emerging adults, including their appearance, illnesses, and health
A
Health is at the peak, mental disorders manifest before the age of 24
6
Q
Describe typical emerging adults’ intimacy-related patterns, including attitudes towards sex, dating patterns (serial monogamy and social homogamy), factors influencing attraction, the concept of choice overload, and closeness in romantic relationships and friendships
A
Closeness and intimacy increase
Social homogamy: predictive of long term
partner violence is higher
strenbergs triarchic theory of love: relationships consist of varying levels of intimacy, passion and commitmnent
attraction factors include
- proximity
- apparent availbility
- mere exposure
- physical attraction
- physiologal arousal
7
Q
Explain the diathesis-stress model, how it relates to psychopathology, and what forms of psychopathology may emerge in emerging adults; apply this model to an example
A
Some disorders or symptoms are produced by a stressful envriomental factors that trigger an underlying vulnerability or genetic disposition
8
Q
Describe trends in alcohol consumption in young adulthood
A
use and abuse are most common and higher for college students
9
Q
Understand the idea of post-formal thought and the various ways that it is apparent in emerging adults, including changes in objectivity/subjectivity, flexibility, delay discounting, pragmatic thinking, dialectical thought
A
Post-formal thought is a stage of cognitive development that goes beyond the formal operational stage proposed by Piaget. It is characterized by the ability to think more flexibly, integrate different perspectives, and handle complex problems more effectively. Here are some key aspects of post-formal thought and how they manifest in emerging adults:
- Changes in Objectivity/Subjectivity: Emerging adults develop the ability to recognize that knowledge is often relative and context-dependent rather than absolute. They understand that different perspectives can coexist and that subjective experiences play a significant role in shaping one’s understanding of the world.
- Flexibility: They become more adaptable in their thinking, able to shift perspectives and consider multiple solutions to a problem. This flexibility allows them to navigate complex social and professional environments more effectively.
- Delay Discounting: This refers to the ability to delay gratification and make decisions that consider long-term outcomes rather than immediate rewards. Emerging adults begin to show more control over impulsive behaviors, weighing the future implications of their actions more carefully.
- Pragmatic Thinking: Emerging adults develop a more practical approach to problem-solving. They learn to balance idealistic goals with realistic constraints, applying their knowledge and skills to real-world situations in a pragmatic way.
- Dialectical Thought: This involves the ability to understand and integrate contradictory viewpoints or ideas. Emerging adults learn to appreciate that contradictions and conflicts can coexist and can be resolved through synthesis, leading to more nuanced and sophisticated thinking.
10
Q
Describe identity development in emerging adulthood, including the perspective of Erikson
A
- Still seeking identity achievement
- Erikson: crisis of intimacy vs. isolation
- Loneliness peaks in emerging adulthood, even with high quantity of friendships
- Lives stay linked with parents emotionally, financially
- Belonging=fundamental value
11
Q
Describe the development of vocational identity from childhood onwards
A
The development of vocational identity begins in childhood with role-playing and early interest
In adolescence, different career options influenced by family, peers, and personal interests.
In emerging adulthood, higher education and work experiences help refine career goals.
During early adulthood, individuals establish their careers and seek advancement.
Middle adulthood often brings career consolidation and potential transitions.
Finally, in late adulthood, there’s a focus on preparing for retirement and reflecting on career achievements. Throughout these stages, personal experiences, social influences, and opportunities shape vocational identity.
12
Q
Explain various characteristics of emerging adults that may contribute to their level of happiness
A
1.) not yet experienced financial stress
2.) high autonomy/self-reliance
3.) friendship and romantic relationship equality
4.) agreement between actual self and “felt” age
5.) increased self-esteem
6.) optimism
13
Q
Describe the relevance of attachment theory for young adults – in what ways is attachment related to social adjustment?
A
Adult attachment varies along dimensions of anxiety and avoidance – secure attachment is low in both.
14
Q
Describe Erikson’s perspective on psychosocial development in middle adulthood
A
Generativity vs. stagnation
- Increases responsibility, increases opportunities for contribution
15
Q
Explain various challenges that make middle adulthood a time for increased stress for some
A
- Family life and balancing needs
- Midlife identity
- Health and hormonal changes
- Intelligence
- Work
16
Q
Explain the ideas behind the terms sandwich generation, boomerang kids, and empty nesters, and describe their potential implications for stress and adjustment of adults
A
- Sandwich generation: increasing number of mid-adults balancing caregiving of children and parents
- Boomerang kids: those who return home after living independently
- Empty nest: role loss- worse adjustment as parenting goes away
- Role stress relive- better adjustment as parent goes away?
17
Q
Define senescence, and how it is reflected in physical, hormonal, and neurological changes
What are buffers against the aging process?
A
the (natural) aging process (physical and cognitive)
determined by genes and lifestyle
Buffers: exercise, sleep, sense of control, social support
18
Q
Explain the hormonal milestone of menopause, and describe its biological and social impact
A
Menopause is the natural biological transition when a woman’s ovaries stop producing eggs, leading to the end of menstruation and a decline in estrogen and progesterone levels. hot flashes, mood swings, and an increased risk of osteoporosis and heart disease occur.
Socially, menopause can impact mental health, self-esteem, and relationships, with varied cultural perceptions—some seeing it as a positive life stage, while others may associate it with aging.
19
Q
Describe differences by sex and SES in terms of aging trends– consider life expectancy, morality and illness, health, etc.
A
Who finds aging more concerning? women
Who has a longer life expectancy? women
Who has higher rates of illness and disease? men
Who is more proactive in health decisions? women
SES and Worldwide trends:
Is health generally better for low or high SES? higher
Is life expectancy increasing or decreasing worldwide? increasing
Is the US higher or lower in life expectancy relative to other high-income countries? lower
20
Q
Define and provide examples of the two “clusters” of intelligence
Explain age-related differences in the trajectory and importance of these forms
A
Fluid : quick, flexible, efficient use of information processing and working memory
Crystallized : cumulative knowledge, reflected in long-term memory functioning
21
Q
Describe findings regarding age differences in intelligence, and specific ways that these findings differ depending on study methodology
A
Cross-sectional studies: intelligence declines with age- young people score higher in IQ tests when tested at the same time
Longitudinal studies: find that on average, IQ increases throughout adulthood, up to a point
Cross-sequential Seattle Longitudinal Study: compare multiple groups over time, and suggest several nuances
22
Q
Describe the idea of expert cognition, why it’s most possible in adulthood, and what cognitive skills are reflected in expertise
A
Expert cognition = greater use of…
Intuition: from rule following to experience guided expectancies
Automaticity: from conscious to automatic processing
Strategies: efficiency in optimizing outcomes
Flexibility: better responses to challenging situations
23
Q
Describe the characteristics of a midlife crisis and explain its influencing factors
A
period of anxiety, radical reevaluation, and sudden transformation
More to do with developmental history than age – NOT everyone
24
Q
Summarize two theories that depict healthy balancing of needs (Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and Self-Determination theory)
A
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs: must fulfill basic needs (like food and safety) before progressing to higher needs, such as love, esteem, and self-actualization. A healthy balance is achieved when individuals satisfy all these levels, enabling personal growth and fulfillment.
Self- determination theory: SDT emphasizes the importance of meeting three core psychological needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness. When these needs are fulfilled, individuals experience greater motivation, well-being, and personal development
25
Identify and explain the Big 5 theory of personality traits
Openess: imagination, feelings, actions, ideas
Conscientiousness: competence, self- disipline
Extroversion: sociability, emotional expression
Agreeableness: coorperative, trustworthy
Nueroticism: tendency toward unstable emotions
26
Explain the main assumptions of developmental science.
Developmental science describes, explains, predicts, and intervenes in characteristics and patterns of change (physical, cognitive, and social-emotional).
27
Describe what multicontextual refers to in lifespan development.
Development occurs in many contexts. Baltes identified 3 specific contextual influences: normative age-grade influences, normative history-graded influences, and non-normative life influences.
28
Describe what multidirectional refers to in lifespan development
Development can be continuous, or discontinuous, and it is not always linear. Every change entails both growth and loss.
29
Describe what multidimensional refers to in lifespan development
We change across three general domains: physical, cognitive and psychosocial.
Physical: changes in height, weight, sensory capabilities, the nervous system, & the propensity for disease and illness.
Cognitive: changes in intelligence, wisdom, perception, problem-solving, memory and language.
Psychosocial: changes in emotion, self-perception, and interpersonal relations with families, peers, and friends.
30
Describe what plastic refers to in lifespan development
Traits and outcomes are moldable, yet durable
31
Describe what multicultural refers to in lifespan development.
Socioeconomic status, social class, ethnicity, race and culture affect development.
32
Describe what multidisciplinary refers to in lifespan development
Development requires the theories, research methods, and knowledge base of many academic disciplines.
33
Define socioeconomic status (SES), and explain how it may affect development.
SES is a way to identify families and households based on their shared levels of education, income and occupation.
Having higher SES often is associated with having greater control and freedom over their job and their life. Control and freedom are associated with job satisfaction, personal happiness, and ultimate health and well-being.
Having lower SES is often associated with jobs more subject to job disruptions, including lay-offs and lower wages.
34
Differentiate the issue of activity/passivity in development.
active: highlight the role of individual agency and proactive engagement in shaping development.
passive: emphasize the influence of external factors and stimuli on developmental outcomes, with individuals responding to their environment rather than actively directing their own growth.
35
Differentiate the issue of nature/nurture in development.
nature: emphasizes genetic and biological factors as primary determinants of development.
nurture: highlights the role of environmental influences and experiences in shaping development.
36
Differentiate the issue of universal/context-specific in development.
universal: theorists propose a common developmental path that applies broadly across humanity
context-specific: theorists argue that development is influenced by unique cultural and environmental contexts, leading to variations in developmental outcomes
37
Differentiate the issue of continuous/discontinuous in development.
continuous: theorists say that each stage of development asserts distinct and sequential qualities and characteristics that are qualitatively different from the other stages.
discontinuous: theorists believe that development is slow and gradual, and that skills are developed overtime
38
Differentiate the issue of stable/changing in development.
stable: theorists argue that the personality traits of adults are rooted in the behavioral and emotional tendencies of the infancy and young child.
changing: believe that the initial tendencies change based on social and cultural forces over time.
39
Psychoanalytic - Identify characteristic assumptions, major influencers, their contributions and potential criticisms.
Assumptions - personality develops through unconscious early conflicts
Influencers - Freud and Erikson
Contributions - processes that are outside of our awareness matter
Criticisms - the unconscious is hard to measure, development doesn't necessarily occur in concrete stages, little evidence to support psychosexual theory, too negative?
40
Behaviorism/Learning theories - Identify characteristic assumptions, major influencers, their contributions and potential criticisms.
Assumptions -
1. Behavior is learned from the environment
2. Observable behavior is the primary focus
3. Emphasis is on objective, measurable behaviors
4. Learning occurs through conditioning
5. Past experiences shape behavior
Influencers -
Watson and Skinner
Contributions -
1. Little Albert study
2. Led to more careful science
3. Created the foundation for behavior therapies (ex. ABA)
Criticisms -
1. Unobservable things matter
2. Direct reinforcement is not always necessary for learning
41
Social Learning Theory - Identify characteristic assumptions, major influencers, their contributions and potential criticisms.
Assumptions -
1. Learning occurs through cognitive processes and by watching others (ex. modeling, self-efficacy and outcome expectations)
Influencers -
Bandura
Contributions -
1. Bobo Doll Experiment
2. Concept of reciprocal determinism (the dynamic interaction between individuals, their behavior, and their environment)
Criticisms -
1. Underestimation of Biological Factors
2. Difficulty in Measuring Observational Learning
42
Cognitive - Identify characteristic assumptions, major influencers, their contributions and potential criticisms.
Assumptions -
1. Mental processes can be studied scientifically
2. Learning is influenced by internal factors (memory, perception, biases, thought, etc.)
3. Learning requires active participation
Influencers -
Piaget and Vygotsky
Contributions -
1. Influences on education
2. Understanding and acknowledging thought
Criticisms -
1. Reductionism/Oversimplification
2. Neglect of Individual Differences
43
Describe what Bronfenbrenner emphasized in his ecological-systems approach.
Bronfenbrenner emphasized that human development occurs within a complex system of relationships. He stressed the dynamic, reciprocal relationships between the individual and their environment across these levels.
Includes: the individual, the microsystem (immediate surroundings), mesosystem (connections between microsystems), exosystem (indirect influences), macrosystem (cultural and societal context), and chronosystem (time and historical context)
44
Define reciprocal determinism & how does it fit into the grand perspectives of development?
Reciprocal determinism involves a bidirectional environment <--> person influence
Relates to social learning theory
45
Apply all theoretical perspectives (behaviorism, social learning theory, cognitive, ecological systems, and environmental determinism) by explaining how they'd each explain why a student excels in school.
Behaviorism (Skinner, Pavlov)
- The student excels because they receive positive reinforcement, such as praise from teachers or rewards from parents, which encourages continued academic success.
Social Learning Theory (Bandura)
- The student observes peers or older siblings excelling in school and models their study habits and behaviors, motivated by social approval and imitation.
Cognitive (Piaget)
-The student has developed effective problem-solving and critical thinking skills appropriate for their cognitive stage, allowing them to excel academically through logical reasoning.
Ecological Systems Theory (Bronfenbrenner)
- The student's success is influenced by supportive parents and teachers (microsystem), a well-resourced school environment (exosystem), and cultural values that prioritize education (macrosystem).
Environmental Determinism
- The student excels due to external factors, such as growing up in a well-funded educational system or living in a community that places strong emphasis on academic achievement, which determines their success.
46
Describe differences between correlational & experimental designs and the inferences that can be drawn from studies using each. Why are both designs critically important to developmental science?
Correlational Designs -
Differences: Examine relationships between variables without manipulation.
Inferences: Identify associations but cannot determine causation.
Experimental Designs:
Differences: Manipulate variables and control conditions to test causation.
Inferences: Establish cause-and-effect relationships.
Importance: Correlational designs identify patterns and guide further research, while experimental designs test causality and evaluate interventions. Both are essential for understanding and advancing developmental science.
47
Explain differences between cross-sectional, longitudinal, and cross-sequential research, and why researchers may opt to use any of these (what are the benefits/downsides of each?)
Cross-sectional -
Single time-point (ex. comparing groups across an age level)
* doesn't always display usable data
Longitudinal -
Collecting data repeatedly on the same sample at multiple time-points
* expensive, retention challenges
Cross-sequential research -
Studying several groups of people of different ages over time
* expensive, retention challenges
48
Explain what a field experiment is, focusing especially on Randomized Control Trials (RCTs) – what do they tell us?
Randomized control trials (RCTs; feild experiments) take place out of the lab and still include random assingent to conditions
These give us authentic reactions, insights into human behavior, decision-making, and societal dynamics that are more closely aligned with real-life situations than laboratory studies.
49
Understand practical considerations when conducting developmental research
* In logintudial research: participant retention
* validilty of measurment based on age
* achknowlagement based on changing context with age and maturity
50
Describe ethical considerations when conducting developmental research
* Institutional reveiw board approval(s) are necessary
* minors (under 18), older adults, pregnant women, prisoners, and other vunerable population
* careful participant recruitment
* parent consent and participant assent approriate for age
* appropriate incentives
* confidentality (must always minimize harm)
* collarbrations, replications, and transparency
* poltics can drive research questions and funding
* public misintreprtations
51
Understand the definition and importance of behavioral genetics
The study of the interplay between genetic and envriomental contributions to behavor
52
Describe and give examples of the three types of genotype-environment correlations ( passive, evocative, active)
* Passive: children inherit genetic tendencies from parents, who also provide envrioment that match their own genetic tendencies
example: musical parents have musical children, and are likely to provide an envrioment rich in music
* Evocative: Genetic tendencies elicit (evoke) stimulation from the envrioment
example: a happy outgoing child elicits smiles and friendly responses from others
* active: Children actively seek out "niches" in their envrioment that reflecton their own intrests and talents
example: seeking out libaries, sport fields, music class, etc
53
Describe the idea of gene-environment interactions in development
Provide an example of an interaction (think in terms of depicting either susceptibility to environment or genes manifesting differently depending on environment)
Gene-environment interactions refer to the way genetic predispositions and environmental factors work together to influence an individual's development.
An example of a gene-environment interaction is the impact of stress on mental health. Individuals with a genetic predisposition to depression may be more susceptible to developing depression if exposed to stressful life events, such as trauma or chronic stress.
54
Explain the principles underlying twin studies and adoption studies as behavioral genetic designs
twin studies -
compare correlation between identical twins relative to fraternal twins
(stronger correlation in identical twins may imply more genetic influence)
adoption studies -
compare scores of adopted children to biological and adoptive families
(stronger correlation to biological families suggests more genetic influence)
adoptive twin studies -
compare identical twins reared together to those reared apart
(similar correlations between twins' traits suggest little environmental influence)
55
Define the periods of fetal development and describe what characterizes each (including risk factors, major developments, timing)
Germinal period (0-2 weeks)
- Conception
- Cell multiplication
- Implantation occurs by attaching to the uterus (this fails around 60% of the time)
Embryonic period (3-8 weeks)
- Major organs develop (organogenesis)
- Neural tube forms
- Limbs emerge
- At 8 weeks: less than 2" long, less than an ounce
- Spontaneous abortion occurs in around 20% of cases
Fetal period (9 weeks-birth)
- Sex organs develop
- Significant brain development
- Age of viability- around 22 weeks
- Spontaneous abortion occurs in around 5% of cases
56
Explain what teratogens and their threshold effects refer to - give several examples of teratogens and their effects
Teratogens -
Substances or environmental factors that can cause malformations or functional deficits in a developing fetus when exposure occurs during pregnancy.
Threshold Effect -
Teratogens may not cause harm unless exposure exceeds a certain level or threshold. Below this threshold, the substance may have little to no impact on fetal development, but once the threshold is crossed, the risk of damage increases significantly.
Ex.
1. Alcohol - Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FASD)
2. Tobacco - Low birth weight, preterm birth, and increased risk of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)
3. Mercury - Neurological damage
4. Radiation - Miscarriage, brain damage, and an increased risk of childhood cancers.
57
Provide examples of challenges and complications that some people endure during pregnancy (hypertension, diabetes, etc.)
gestational diabetes - can cause high blood sugar levels, potentially leading to complications like macrosomia (large baby), preterm birth, and increased risk of type 2 diabetes for the mother later on
hypertension/preeclampsia - can lead to high blood pressure, increasing the risk of preterm birth and affecting maternal and fetal health
58
Describe postpartum depression and its risk factors (that is, what might make developing PPD more likely?)
feelings of sadness, inadequacy, difficulties in handling the newborn
-potential risk factors?
- having depression previously,
- a family history of depression
- being younger than 20
- stress
-substance use
59
Describe the three stages of the birthing process
1.) Dilation and Effacement
- cervix thins (effaces) and widens (dilates) via muscular contractions that increase in frequency and pain
2) Birth
- fetus descends through uterus and into and out of birth canal; head crowns, shoulders rotate
3) Afterbirth - Expulsion of Placenta
- pushed out to avoid infection and help uterus return to normal
60
Recognize the social and safety concerns of decisions regarding sleeping in infancy
Co-sleeping (Room-sharing) -
Encouraged by pediatricians, particularly for the first 6-12 months, because it allows for close monitoring and easy access for feeding. It reduces the risk of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) while providing a balance between safety and parental presence.
Bed-sharing:
Common in many cultures but is associated with increased SIDS risk, especially when blankets, pillows, or soft surfaces are involved. In some countries, parents practice safe bed-sharing by minimizing some risks, while facilitating bonding and breastfeeding.
Separate rooms:
In the U.S., having babies sleep in a separate room is more common as babies grow older. While this promotes independence, it's usually safer to keep babies in the same room during their first 6 months to reduce the risk of SIDS.
61
Describe processes of brain development in the first few years of life (including what myelination, synaptic booming and pruning refer to)
* myelination: development of myelin
* synaptic booming, followed by pruning, where used connections die and those that remain are stronger
62
Identify the main structures of a neuron, and how they communicate
* Dendrites: Receive signals from other neurons.
* Nucleus: Controls the cell’s activities and contains genetic material.
* Cell Body: Processes incoming signals and houses the nucleus.
* Axon Terminals: Release neurotransmitters to communicate with other cells.
* Myelin Sheaths: Insulate the axon and speed up the transmission of electrical impulses.
63
Distinguish between fine motor skills, gross motor skills, and reflexes
Gross motor skills: large body movements, starts “preaching”
Fine motor skills: small body movements
Reflexes: involuntary responses to stimuli
64
Provide several examples of reflexes and their functions
* Moro reflex: The Moro reflex is thought to be a protective mechanism, helping the infant respond to potential danger
* Babiniski reflex: This reflex is important for assessing the integrity of the baby's nervous system, especially the motor pathways.
* Grasping: This reflex is thought to be an evolutionary trait that helps infants hold onto their caregiver for safety.
* Sucking: This reflex is crucial for feeding and survival.
* Rooting: This reflex helps the baby locate the breast or bottle for feeding
* Tonic next reflex: This reflex helps with early development of muscle tone and movement coordination.
65
Explain some of the major motor skills developed in infancy, and the variability surrounding “milestones”
* Lifting head: 0-2 months
* Rolling over: 2-4.5 months
* Sitting up: 4.5- 6 months
* Standing with support: 5-7 months
* Walking with support: 7-13 months
* Standing alone: 9.5- 13.5 months
* Walking alone: 11- 14 months
66
Describe the role of habituation procedures in understanding infant cognition.
Habituation procedures are used to study infant cognition by measuring how infants respond to repeated stimuli
67
Explain the Piagetian concepts of schema, assimilation, and accommodation
* Schema: Mental structures that help us understand the world.
* Assimilation: Adding new experiences to existing schemas without changing them.
* Accommodation: Changing or creating new schemas to fit new experiences.
68
* Describe Piaget’s Sensorimotor stage of cognitive development, including: basic characteristics, circular reactions, and concepts that apply to particular circular reaction stages, including object permanence and deferred imitations (critiscms as well)
* Sensormotor state: cognition and learning develops from the senses and motor abilities
* Circular reactions: feedback loops between baby and something else
* Primary Circular Reactions (stages 1 & 2): learning through own body using senses & reflexes, which develop into first-acquired adaptations (ex: adapting to bottle)
* Secondary Circular Reactions (stages 3 & 4): learning through interactions between self and objects or people
First active goal attempts – make interesting things last
Develop object permanence: understanding that things exist outside of visibility
* Tertiary Circular Reactions (stages 5 & 6): active exploration & experimentation (independently)
Deferred imitation emerges: the ability to replicate or imitate an action or behavior that was observed at an earlier time
Critiscms: Underestimation of Infants' abilities and stages are more continuous than piaget suggested:
69
Understand the idea of the “universal sequence” in language development
Contrast multiple theories of language development (nativism & the language acquisition device vs. learning theory vs. social pragmatics)
The univerisal sequence: babies follow the same sequence of early language development
Language theories:
Skinner: Language needs to be reinforced
Chomsky (language acqusition device): nativism
Bandura: Socialization Fosters language (born with the abilitym but needs to be developed)
70
Use Erikson’s psychosocial theory to characterize development during infancy
Basic Conflict: Trust vs. Mistrust (0- 1 years)
Virtue: Hope
Description: Trust (or mistrust) that needs basic needs, such as nourishment and affection will be met
Basic Conflict: autonomy vs shame/ doubt (1- 3 years)
Virtue: Will
Description: Develop a sense of independence in many tasks
71
Describe Bowlby’s theory of attachment: define attachment, explain what its implications for later development are, and the idea of a “secure base”
Bowlby's attachment theory: Attachment is an emotional bond that endures across time and space
* bowlby: posits from birth, we are predisposed to develop attachments to fullfill needs (biological, emotional security/ comfort needs, and self regulation)
these all allow for exploration of envrioment by providing a secure base
72
Describe the idea of working models
Internal working model: a childs mental representation of the self, attachment figures, and relations in general
* constructed as a result of experiences with caregivers
* guides interations in childhood and beyond
73
Explain Ainsworth’s theory of attachment styles, and contrast four styles using the Strange Situation technique
Strange situation tasks (ainsworth) classify infants into 4 attachment styles based on lab observations
* Secure: plays happily; is not happy mom left; is happy when she returns
* Insecure- avoidant: plays; keeps playing; ignores mom
* Insecure- anxious: clings; will not play; is not happy mom left; stays upset when mom retures
* Disorganized- may not play, may show fear or act negatively; acts out when she returns
Outcomes of secure attachment
Better emotional and social adjustment during childhood and later
* More postive peer interactions
* higher self esteem
* higher social skills
* appropriate communications
* emotion regulation
74
Contrast primary (basic) vs. secondary (self-conscious) emotions, and provide examples of each
Basic emotions (first 4-6 months):
* Joy
* Anger
* Sadness
* Fear
* Disgust
* Smiling is reflective from birth, social around 6 weeks, familular around 5-6 months
* anger is distinguishable around 6 months, frustration by one year, peaks around 1.5 years
* Fear develops around 9 months
* Stanger danger: unfamiliular faces cause stress
* Sepreation anxitey: When the caregiver leaves
Self- Conscious emotions
* Guilt
* Shame
* Pride
* Embarassment
* Empathy
* Jealously
* require self awareness and social awareness
* unlikely to occur in the first year (this is debated)
* cultural differences in expression of self-conscious emotions
* western cultures emphazise pride and praise
Self awareness: realization that body, mind, and actions are sepreate from others
* around one year: "me" and "mine"
* "rouge test": self recongiztion in the mirror
75
Define temperament, and describe the idea of goodness of fit parenting
Temperment: individual differences in behavioral styles, emotions, and characteristic ways of responding
* are present from infancy and are partically genetic
* can range with guidence
* longitidunal data
* happy outgoing infants tend to remain stable
* fearful, inhibitated babies tend to become less fearful
Goodness of fit: degree to which temperament is compatible with social environment (parenting)
76
Describe the ideas of synchrony and social referencing
Synchrony: coordinated interactions between infant and caregiver
* high levels are a sign of responsiveness, and predicted of healthy development and icnreased regulation
* still face technique
Social referencing is the process by which infants or young children look to a caregiver or trusted adult for guidance on how to respond to unfamiliar or ambiguous situations. By observing the emotional reactions, facial expressions, and behaviors of others, they learn how to interpret and react to new or uncertain experiences.
77
Understand the idea of developmental plasticity
developmental plasticity - the evolved ability for children to adjust phenotypic development in response to environmental cues experienced in the more plastic (malleable, flexible) early stages of development
78
Identify and explain changes in brain development occurring in early childhood, at including myelination, the corpus callosum and lateralization, prefrontal cortex maturation
* Myelination continues & affects speed of processing
* Prefrontal Cortex: responsible for “executive control”: impulse control, problem solving, regulation
development from 2-6 evident
continues into early adulthood
Results in fewer tantrums, better sleep, more regulation
* Growth in corpus callosum
Band of nerve fibers
improves communication across hemispheres, and thus coordination across lateralized functioning
79
Describe the role of the limbic system and its three major structures
limbic system - its a group of subcortical structures that lead to increased emotional processing/reactions
3 major structures -
1. amygdala - emotional stimuli processing
2. hippocampus - new memory formation
3. hypothalamus - hormone production and regulation (that activates other parts of the brain and body
80
Understand the many implications of brain development for young children (i.e., what happens because of particular aspects of brain development?)
- myelination leads to quicker reaction times
- prefrontal cortex development increases quality sleep, decreases tantrums, and increases regulation
- corpus callosum growth leads to lateralized functioning (communication between hemispheres)
81
Understand the development of gross and fine motor skills during early childhood
gross - running, jumping, skipping, etc.
fine - painting, grasping, building, etc.
the increase in motor skill development allows children to be able to explore more with their bodies (ex. on playgrounds), increasing the risk for injury
82
Explain why young children are especially vulnerable to accidents
their motor skills are developing, but not entirely functioning to the degree they will be later in their childhood. children take these new skills and explore the world physically, increasing the risk for them to be unable to gauge safety and control their body. these things lead to injury.
83
Describe Piaget’s stage of preoperational intelligence in young children, including new abilities relative to earlier years
- includes language and imagination (in addition to infancy), but logical operational thought isn't possible yet.
- goes from symbolic functioning to intuitive thought
84
Define and identify the obstacles to logical reasoning in early childhood cognition
* egocentrism - inability to discriminate between self and others' perspectives
* conservation concept - changing the appearance of object doesn't change the properties
* centration - focusing on one idea and excluding others
* focus on appearance - ignoring attributes that are not apparent
* perceptual salience - focusing on current here/now experiences
* irreversibility - things cannot be undone
85
Describe contributions of Vygotsky to understanding of early childhood development
zone of proximal development - there is a range from what childern can do independently and what they can do with complete support. the ZPD outlines that the midpoint is where best educational outcomes and learning are observed
scaffolding - increasing concepts in logical steps, rather than all at once
private speech occurs - children work through problems and regulation by thinking out loud (this eventually becomes inner speech)
86
Define several aspects of information processing that develop during early childhood (note most of these improve, but are still considerably less developed than they will be later); including attention (divided, selective, sustained), executive functioning, and kinds of memory
* divided attention - the ability to focus on multiple things at once (though still limited in young children)
* selective attention - focusing on specific information while ignoring distractions (improves with age)
* sustained attention - maintaining focus over time (increases gradually during early childhood)
* executive functioning - skills like planning, impulse control, and problem-solving (gradually improves but is still developing in early childhood)
* working memory - the ability to hold and manipulate information for short periods (improves as children grow)
* long-term memory - storing information for extended periods ( young children may struggle with retrieval)
* episodic memory - memory of specific events (ex. narratives)
* semantic memory - memory of specific facts/info (ex. math, names)
87
Explain the stage of Erikson’s theory relevant to the psychosocial development of young children
Ages 3-6: Initiative vs. Guilt.
- children are eager to explore their environment, make decisions, and try new activities, demonstrating a sense of initiative.
- successful experiences encourage confidence and skills, while strict criticism or failure can lead to feelings of GUILT about their abilities and choices.
88
Describe Baumrind’s two dimensions and four classifications of parenting styles, including problems/ criticisms of her classifications, and correlates/outcomes associated with each form
Dimension #1 - RESPONSIVENESS (degree to which parent responds to child's needs in accepting, supportive manner; readily shows warmth and love)
Dimension #2 - DEMANDINGNESS (degree to which parent expects/demands mature, responsible behavior from the child; active control)
Classification 1 (high demand, low responsiveness) - Authoritarian
Classification 2 (high demand, high responsiveness) - Authoritative
Classification 3 (low demand, low responsiveness) - Indifferent
Classification 4 (low demand, high reponsiveness) - Indigent
89
Describe the current state of the evidence for the effectiveness and potential harm of physical punishment
*It's common, but decreasing
*Ineffective in reducing problem behavior (and can increase it)
*Increases risk of emotional, social, and cognitive problems (like aggression)
*Negative effects found across cultural groups
*Illegal in many countries, but discouraged by medical and research organizations in the US
90
Describe the process of gender socialization, and articulate the views of social cognitive theory and gender schema theory in explaining gendered behaviors
*gender socialization -
* social cognitive theory - behavior learned through observation, modeling, reinforcement, and these are mediated through cognitive processes.
* gender schema theory - children develop schemas of gender, and once they identify with gender, seek out information in line with that identity
91
Explain the terms gender dysphoria, transgender, and intersex, and differentiate between sex and gender
* gender dysphoria - the psychological distress that some individuals feel due to a mismatch between their gender identity and their sex assigned at birth.
* transgender - identifying with gender different from or in line with sex assigned at birth
* intersex - in terms of reproductive organs, chromosomal differences, or hormone production
92
Describe the difference between achievement and aptitude, what IQ tests measure, and how IQ scores are distributed
* aptitude - the potential to master a particular skill or learn a particular body of knowledge
* achievement - proficiency or mastery in a given subject
* IQ tests - measure intellectual aptitude/learning potential
* IQ test scores - 68.26% are average, its a normal bell curve
93
Describe criticisms for intelligence testing
* executive functioning is more predictive of achievement
* does aptitude = achievement? NO.
* test scores reflects the culture of the test-writers and takers
* intellectual potential can change over the life span (within individuals and over time across the population)
94
Define and identify examples of the information-processing constructs of reaction time, selective attention, automatization, working memory (and its forms), executive functioning, transitive inference, spatial reasoning, and metacognition
* reaction time - time it takes to respond to a stimulus
* selective attention - ability to concentrate on one stimulus while ignoring others
* automatization - repetitions of a series of thoughts and actions makes the sequence routine
* working memory - visuospatial working memory (requires maintenance rehearsal)
* executive functioning - cognitive processes that help with planning, impulse control, and problem-solving.
* transitive inference - the ability to understand implied (not stated) relationships
* spatial reasoning - ability to understand objects' locations in space
* metacognition - thinking about your thinking
95
Explain the role of physical activity and active play in brain development
* facilitates neurogenesis and brain growth, improved cognitive functions, emotional and social development, motor skill development, stress reduction, enhanced learning
96
Describe Piaget’s theory of cognitive development as it applies to middle childhood, including what stage children are in, how they perform on Piagetian tasks, and newly developed abilities
* Concrete Operational Thinking
- children able to reason logically about direct experiences and perceptions
- perform better on egocentrism and conservation tasks (primary limitation: abstract reasoning)
* more advanced skills:
- seriation: arranging items systematically
- decentration: focus on multiple dimensions of objects
- but relies on INDUCTIVE REASONING
97
Explain Piaget’s and Kohlberg’s theories of moral development and observations of differences based on age
* PIAGET
Concrete Operational Thinking
- children able to reason logically about direct experiences and perceptions
- perform better on egocentrism and conservation tasks (primary limitation: abstract reasoning)
* KOHLBERG
- preconventional: rewards & punishments
- conventional: societal rules and norms
- postconventional: greater principles of justice and fairness
98
Describe the principle of homophily & selection/socialization effects
* homophily - we tend to associate with similar others
* selection effects - choose friends based on shared characteristics
* socialization effects - characteristics become more similar between friends
99
Explain the sociometric approach to understanding peer status, in terms of measurement and the outcomes/categories it produces
* captures relative standing/status in peer groups based on like/not-liked nominations
1. HIGH liked - low disliked ... Accepted
2. HIGH liked - HIGH disliked ... Controversial
3. avg. liked - avg. disliked ... Average
4. low liked - low disliked ... Neglected
5. low liked - high disliked ... Rejected
100
Define bullying, its forms, and its consequences
* Bullying: repeated systematic efforts to inflict harm through physical, verbal, or social attack on a weaker person
1. intentional
2. repeated
3. power difference
101
Describe changes associated with puberty during adolescence, including physical milestones, hormonal activity and timing (especially estradiol, testosterone, and melatonin)
* large variation in onset and tempo; average lasts 3-5 years
* increase in hormone production, spurring physical growth and sexual maturity
* primary: reproductive organs
secondary: other physical changes
* male: spermarche, testosterone, testes
female: menarche, estradiol, ovaries
102
Explain the delayed phase preference and its implications
* during adolescence, the circadian rhythm is altered, meaning that melatonin is released about 2 hours later
* this means that adolescents prefer to be awake 2 hours later in the night and prefer to wake up 2 hours later in the morning
103
* Describe the key aspects of brain development during adolescence- what is changing, at what pace, and what are the implications of brain development (focusing especially on the prefrontal cortex and limbic system)
* adolescence is a time of developmental plasticity, with imbalances in brain development
* the limbic system and prefrontal cortex are being developed via synaptic pruning and myelination HOWEVER, the limbic system is developing faster, meaning adolescents have decreased emotional regulation and increased emotional reactions/risk-taking
104
Explain the role of the three major structures in the limbic system
* limbic system - its a group of subcortical structures that lead to increased emotional processing/reactions
3 major structures -
1. amygdala - emotional stimuli processing
2. hippocampus - new memory formation
3. hypothalamus - hormone production and regulation (that activates other parts of the brain and body)
105
Define body image and describe related cultural differences and implications for adolescent adjustment
* body image concerns are common (especially for girls)
* body dissatisfaction related to adjustment difficulties
* some differences by race or ethnicity
106
Describe formal operational thought in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development
* formal operational thought
* transition into more abstract, formal reasoning abilities*
* can consider possibilities and not only realities (reflected in hypothetical thought)
107
Describe Erikson’s and Marcia’s theories of identity development
Erikson
- identity v. role confusion
- psychological moratorium
- resolved by identity achievement
Marcia
- ACHIEVEMENT: commitment to identity after exploration
- FORECLOSURE: commitment without exploration
- MORATORIUM: in active exploration without commitment
- DIFFUSION: no commitment and no exploration
108
Understand the idea of hypothetical thought and forms of reasoning
* deductive reasoning (top-down) working from a set of rules/assumptions to arrive at accurate conclusion increases during adolescence
109
Describe individuation in adolescence
* Individuation - the process of gaining autonomy and differentiation
authoritative parenting and secure attachments remains important for youth and are related to...
- emotional well-being
- lower depression, deviancy, substance use
- higher self-esteem and achievements
110
Explain the importance and distinctive challenges of parenting in adolescence
* identity - parents guide teens in exploring values, goals, and self-concept
* balance autonomy and support - teens need independence with boundaries; balancing both is challenging.
* communication and conflict - open dialogue essential but difficult due to independence conflicts.
* risky behaviors - parents monitor while encouraging safe choices; avoid over-controlling.
* emotional/social - adapt parenting style to offer reassurance, address
111
Describe how romantic relationships change in nature from early to late adolescence
* first relationships typically occur during high school and last less than 1 year
- increase in intensity across adolescence
- early on, mostly thought about in terms of peer status, then later to fulfill personal needs and desires
- break-ups are perceived as especially devastating during adolescence
112
Describe the nature of self-esteem in adolescence, including the trajectory of self-esteem in development
* more metacognition during adolescence, which can increase introspection and self-consciousness
- self-esteem is at it's peak around age 9-12, and decreased through adolescence.
113
Describe Erikson’s perspective on psychosocial development in middle adulthood
* Generativity: Middle adults focus on contributing to society and helping future generations (e.g., through parenting, work, mentorship).
* Stagnation: A lack of growth or contribution, often felt as a sense of personal stagnation or lack of purpose.
In midlife, adults strive for fulfillment by leaving a legacy, balancing personal and societal responsibilities, and continuing to grow intellectually and emotionally.
114
Explain various challenges that make middle adulthood a time for increased stress for some
* Family Life: Balancing the needs of children and aging parents can cause stress. The "sandwich generation" refers to middle adults who care for both their children and aging parents simultaneously.
* Work-Life Balance: Career pressures and the challenge of balancing work with personal life can create stress. Many mid-life adults face the challenge of staying competitive in the workforce while managing family responsibilities.
* Health and Hormonal Changes: Aging, health issues, and the physical effects of senescence (e.g., muscle loss, bone density decrease, sensory changes) can add stress. Hormonal shifts like menopause and andropause bring further stress due to physical and emotional changes.
* Midlife Identity: As children grow, and individuals face changes in their roles and self-concept, they may struggle with identity shifts, especially in relation to work, family, and social roles.
115
In terms of family life trends, explain rates of different forms of partnerships (cohabitation, marriage), divorce, parenthood, singlehood, etc. in terms of historical comparisons (see chapter for very helpful graphs)
* Cohabitation: Increasingly common, especially among people in their 40s and 50s, though marriage remains more traditional for many.
* Marriage and Divorce: Marriage rates have declined in recent decades, while divorce rates, especially among those over 50 (often called "gray divorce"), have increased.
* Parenthood: Delayed or later-in-life parenthood is becoming more common, as more people wait until their 30s or 40s to have children.
* Singlehood: More adults are remaining single later in life, often due to career, personal preference, or societal shifts toward individual autonomy.
116
Explain the ideas behind the terms sandwich generation, boomerang kids, and empty nesters, and describe their potential implications for stress and adjustment of adults
*Sandwich Generation: Refers to middle adults who are caring for both children and aging parents. This can create financial, emotional, and physical stress, as individuals juggle caregiving duties while still managing their own life.
* Boomerang Kids: Young adults who return home after initially leaving to live independently. Economic challenges (e.g., housing, jobs) and changes in family dynamics contribute to this trend.
* Empty Nesters: Parents whose children have left home. While this can be a time of relief, it can also be a period of emotional adjustment and potential role loss, leading to feelings of loss or sadness.
117
Define senescence, and how it is reflected in physical, hormonal, and neurological changes
(What are buffers against the aging process?)
* Senescence: The natural aging process that affects both physical and cognitive abilities.
* Physical Changes: Includes loss of collagen, age spots, muscle and strength loss, decrease in bone density, cardiovascular health issues, and sensory changes (e.g., presbycusis – age-related hearing loss).
* Hormonal Changes:
For women: Menopause marks the end of menstruation, with drops in estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone. This process can be gradual, and while it is often depicted negatively, many women experience it with minimal issues.
* For men: Andropause is associated with a gradual decline in testosterone.
* Neurological Changes: Slower processing speed, increased reaction times, and declines in complex memory and multitasking. However, cognitive decline is typically slow and varies based on factors like sleep, stress, and overall health.
* Buffers Against Aging: Exercise, adequate sleep, a sense of control, and social support can help mitigate the negative effects of aging.
118
Explain the hormonal milestone of menopause, and describe its biological and social impact
* Menopause (for women) typically occurs in the late 40s or early 50s and involves the cessation of menstruation, along with a decline in estrogen and progesterone. This can lead to physical symptoms (hot flashes, sleep issues) and emotional changes, but it’s not always a negative experience.
* Social Impact: Women may experience feelings of freedom, a renewed focus on self-care, or shifts in life goals as they transition through menopause.
119
Describe differences by sex and SES in terms of aging trends– consider life expectancy, morality and illness, health, etc.
Sex Differences:
Life Expectancy: Women generally live longer than men.
Health Issues: Men have higher rates of illness and disease than women, though women tend to live with more chronic conditions.
Proactive Health Decisions: Women are more likely to seek medical advice and adopt health measures than men.
SES Differences: Individuals from higher socioeconomic status (SES) backgrounds generally have better health, higher life expectancy, and better access to healthcare.
Global Trends: Life expectancy is increasing worldwide, but the U.S. has a lower life expectancy compared to other high-income countries, partially due to health disparities and lifestyle factors.
120
Define and provide examples of the two “clusters” of intelligence
Explain age-related differences in the trajectory and importance of these forms
* Fluid Intelligence: Involves the ability to think quickly, reason abstractly, and process information efficiently. It tends to decline gradually with age.
* Crystallized Intelligence: Refers to accumulated knowledge and experience, which tends to remain stable or even increase with age.
* Age-Related Changes: While fluid intelligence declines in middle adulthood, crystallized intelligence remains strong and can be further enriched by experience and learning.
121
Describe findings regarding age differences in intelligence, and specific ways that these findings differ depending on study methodology
* Cross-Sectional Studies: These studies often show that intelligence declines with age, but they fail to account for cohort effects (differences between age groups that are not related to age itself).
* Longitudinal Studies: These studies typically show that intelligence can increase or remain stable through adulthood, especially with continued learning and mental engagement.
* Cross-Sequential Studies: Combining both cross-sectional and longitudinal methods, these studies provide a more nuanced view of cognitive development and suggest that intelligence changes in complex ways across the lifespan.
122
Describe the idea of expert cognition, why it’s most possible in adulthood, and what cognitive skills are reflected in expertise
* Expert Cognition: Involves the use of intuition, automaticity, flexible strategies, and experience to solve problems more effectively. Adults in middle adulthood are often experts in their field due to accumulated knowledge and experience
* Intuition: Greater reliance on experience rather than rigid rule-following.
* Automaticity: Tasks become less conscious and more automatic with practice.
* Strategies and Flexibility: More efficient and adaptive responses to problems.
123
Describe the characteristics of a midlife crisis and explain its influencing factors
* Not all individuals experience a midlife crisis, but it is sometimes portrayed as a time of anxiety, re-evaluation, and drastic change (e.g., career shifts, drastic lifestyle changes).
* Often, it is more about a developmental history or ongoing struggles with identity and life meaning rather than a universal experience tied to age.
124
Summarize two theories that depict healthy balancing of needs (Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and Self-Determination theory)
* Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: Focuses on the progression from basic needs (e.g., physiological and safety needs) to higher needs (e.g., self-actualization). In adulthood, self-actualization becomes more important for well-being.
* Self-Determination Theory: Emphasizes the importance of autonomy, competence, and relatedness for psychological well-being. Adults need opportunities for personal growth, mastery, and meaningful connections.
125
Describe personality development in adulthood, including…
* The big 5 theory of personality traits
* What characteristics may be on the extreme ends of each of the Big 5
* Trajectories of the Big 5 personality traits throughout adulthood
* Cultural and gender effects on personality
Big 5 Personality Traits:
* Openness: Creativity and willingness to experience new things.
* Conscientiousness: Self-discipline and responsibility.
* Extraversion: Sociability and assertiveness.
* Agreeableness: Compassion and cooperation.
* Neuroticism: Emotional stability or tendency toward negative emotions.
Changes in Personality:
* Stability: Personality traits tend to remain relatively stable over adulthood.
* Cultural and Gender Effects: There is more variation within cultures than between them. Gender convergence refers to the tendency for gender differences to become less pronounced as people age.
126
Describe populations trends in associated with the older demographic
* The older demographic (ages 65-70+) is growing due to demographic shifts. As life expectancy increases, the proportion of the population that is older than 65 is expanding. This is leading to an aging population, with the “young old” (65-75), “old” (75-85), and “oldest-old” (85+) categories becoming more prominent.
* The older population is now one of the fastest-growing age groups globally.
127
Explain the difference between primary and secondary aging processes, and give some examples of each
Primary Aging: This refers to the biological, inevitable aging process that occurs naturally and is genetically programmed. Examples include:
* Cellular and molecular changes: Gradual decline in body systems, such as decreased organ function and skin elasticity (e.g., wrinkling, graying hair, vision loss).
* Brain changes: Decrease in brain size, loss of neurons, and slowing down of processing speed.
*Secondary Aging: Aging influenced by lifestyle factors and health conditions, which can be somewhat controlled. Examples include:
*Cardiovascular disease: Often due to poor diet, lack of exercise, smoking.
* Type 2 diabetes: Risk increases with sedentary lifestyle, unhealthy eating habits.
* Dementia: Some types are influenced by environmental and lifestyle factors.
128
Define and provide examples of ageism and its implications
* Ageism: Negative stereotypes and discrimination based on age. In late adulthood, it often manifests in assumptions that older adults are frail, dependent, or cognitively impaired.
* Implications: Ageism can lead to social isolation, lower self-esteem, and reduced opportunities for older adults, including employment and healthcare access. It can also contribute to internalized ageism, where older adults start to believe these negative stereotypes about themselves.
129
Describe changes in brain structure and functioning during late adulthood
Brain Changes:
* Scaffolding Theory of Aging: The brain remains plastic and can adapt by using different brain areas to compensate for decline (e.g., older adults may use multiple areas of the brain to do tasks that younger adults do with fewer areas).
* Decline in brain structure: Especially in the prefrontal cortex and hypothalamus, which leads to a loss of about 5-10% of brain weight by age 90.
* Reduced neurotransmitter production and slower blood flow impact cognitive functions like memory and processing speed.
* Synaptic pruning and loss of myelin also contribute to cognitive decline.
130
Understand the basic trends in cognitive functioning in late adulthood, including changes in memory (including types of memory), and recall of information. (Also describe the importance of type of testing in these effects)
Memory Changes:
* Working Memory: Older adults often show a decline in the ability to hold and manipulate information. The central executive function (responsible for organizing and controlling other cognitive functions) tends to decline.
* Long-Term Memory:
Semantic Memory (vocabulary, facts) is generally unimpaired with age.
* Episodic Memory (personal experiences) tends to decline with age, especially for more recent events.
* Implicit Memory (unconscious recall, like motor skills) persists.
* Types of Memory: Recognition is often easier than recall for older adults.
131
Define and know the prevalence of dementias
* Dementia is a general term for cognitive decline that significantly interferes with daily life, affecting less than 15% of older adults.
* Alzheimer’s Disease: The 5th leading cause of death for those over 65. It typically begins with memory loss and changes in personality, linked to reduced neurogenesis in the hippocampus.
* Parkinson’s Disease: Affects less than 1% of those over 60, causing motor tremors, balance issues, and difficulty movin
132
Describe modifiers of cognitive decline – that is, what can slow decline?
* Cognitive Reserve: The brain’s ability to withstand and compensate for the effects of aging and cognitive decline. Factors that can enhance cognitive reserve include:
* Physical activity: Regular exercise helps maintain brain function.
* Cognitive activity: Mental engagement (e.g., reading, puzzles) can slow cognitive decline.
Happiness and health: Positive mental and physical health contribute to a healthier brain.
133
Describe the concept of theory of mind, as well as how it can be assessed, what it’s related to, and who may have deficits in ToM
* theory of mind - the ability to accurately represent other's mental states
* how it's assessed - Sally-Anne task (Sally places a marble in a basket and leaves the room. Anne moves the marble to a box while Sally is away. When asked where Sally will look for the marble, children with a developed theory of mind (4-5 y.o.) will say "the basket". Younger children, who may not yet understand false beliefs, will often answer "the box".)
* what it's related to - lying
* who may have deficits - deficits related to autism, deafness and language delays
134
Describe Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development as it applies to late adulthood
* Integrity vs. Despair: In late adulthood, individuals reflect on their life and either achieve a sense of integrity (feeling satisfied with their life) or despair (regret and dissatisfaction).
* Integrity involves accepting the life lived and feeling at peace with it.
* Despair can arise from a feeling of wasted opportunities or unfulfilled potential.
135
Describe the basic idea and give examples of the theories of healthy aging reviewed - socioemotional selectivity theory, selective optimization with compensation, activity theory, and self-regulation
* Activity Theory: Suggests that greater activity leads to greater life satisfaction in old age. Remaining engaged in social, physical, and mental activities can improve well-being.
* Socioemotional Selectivity Theory: As people age, they become more selective in their social relationships, focusing on those that are emotionally meaningful. This shift often leads to greater satisfaction with social interactions.
* Selective Optimization with Compensation: Older adults optimize their functioning by selecting fewer, but more meaningful goals and compensating for age-related losses. For example, someone might reduce their physical activities but focus on cognitive or social activities they can excel in.
* Self-Regulation: Balancing “primary control” (actively taking actions to maintain control) with “accommodation” (accepting changes that can’t be controlled) is essential for healthy aging.
136
Understand the basic attitudes towards retirement that late adults have, and how retirement may impact marital satisfaction
Retirement Trends:
* Average retirement age has increased, with many people working past 65, as it is correlated with longer life (except when health forces early retirement).
Retirement Phases:
* Pre-retirement: Planning for the transition.
Immediate Pre-retirement: Establishing concrete plans.
* Actual Retirement: Entering retirement.
Honeymoon Phase: A period of enjoying leisure activities.
* Disenchantment: Feeling of disappointment after the initial excitement wears off.
* Reorientation: Adjusting to retirement and creating a new routine.
Impact on Marital Satisfaction:
* Retirement can provide more time together, improving marital satisfaction. However, it can also create stress if partners struggle with the adjustment or if one is not prepared for the change.
