ignore this Flashcards
adulthood AND cumulative from previous chapters
Understand and describe the characteristics of emerging adulthood, and what makes this stage unique relative to other stages in the lifespan
- Ages 18-29
- Newly termed
- Jensen Arnett describes emerging adulthood as the stage of:
- idenity exploration
- instability
- self-focus
- feeling in between
- possibilties
Describe key differences between emerging and established adulthood as developmental life stages
Established adults occur from around age 30-45
Differences from Emerging adults and estrablished adults are:
- career
- children
- relationships
- living arrangments
Describe demographic trends that have changed for young adults over time
Delayed Milestones: Marriage, parenthood, and homeownership are happening later due to prolonged education, career-building, and economic challenges.
Higher Education: More young adults are pursuing higher education and advanced degrees, delaying entry into the workforce.
Economic Dependence: Many young adults are living with parents longer due to rising living costs, student debt, and economic uncertainty.
Health & Wellness: Greater focus on mental health and physical well-being, including fitness trends and wellness culture.
Describe factors proposed by Arnett as drivers of the “new life stage” of emerging adulthood (see video)
Technology: human labor to technology
sexual revolution: birth control broke the age the link between sexuality and reproduction for the first time; marriage rate when UP and sexual relations went DOWN
womens movement: more women in college; more pressure on women to get married quicker
youth movement: 30 is the new 20; adulthood will be ready when you are ready
Describe the physical development of emerging adults, including their appearance, illnesses, and health
Health is at the peak, mental disorders manifest before the age of 24
Describe typical emerging adults’ intimacy-related patterns, including attitudes towards sex, dating patterns (serial monogamy and social homogamy), factors influencing attraction, the concept of choice overload, and closeness in romantic relationships and friendships
Closeness and intimacy increase
Social homogamy: predictive of long term
partner violence is higher
strenbergs triarchic theory of love: relationships consist of varying levels of intimacy, passion and commitmnent
attraction factors include
- proximity
- apparent availbility
- mere exposure
- physical attraction
- physiologal arousal
Explain the diathesis-stress model, how it relates to psychopathology, and what forms of psychopathology may emerge in emerging adults; apply this model to an example
Some disorders or symptoms are produced by a stressful envriomental factors that trigger an underlying vulnerability or genetic disposition
Describe trends in alcohol consumption in young adulthood
use and abuse are most common and higher for college students
Understand the idea of post-formal thought and the various ways that it is apparent in emerging adults, including changes in objectivity/subjectivity, flexibility, delay discounting, pragmatic thinking, dialectical thought
Post-formal thought is a stage of cognitive development that goes beyond the formal operational stage proposed by Piaget. It is characterized by the ability to think more flexibly, integrate different perspectives, and handle complex problems more effectively. Here are some key aspects of post-formal thought and how they manifest in emerging adults:
- Changes in Objectivity/Subjectivity: Emerging adults develop the ability to recognize that knowledge is often relative and context-dependent rather than absolute. They understand that different perspectives can coexist and that subjective experiences play a significant role in shaping one’s understanding of the world.
- Flexibility: They become more adaptable in their thinking, able to shift perspectives and consider multiple solutions to a problem. This flexibility allows them to navigate complex social and professional environments more effectively.
- Delay Discounting: This refers to the ability to delay gratification and make decisions that consider long-term outcomes rather than immediate rewards. Emerging adults begin to show more control over impulsive behaviors, weighing the future implications of their actions more carefully.
- Pragmatic Thinking: Emerging adults develop a more practical approach to problem-solving. They learn to balance idealistic goals with realistic constraints, applying their knowledge and skills to real-world situations in a pragmatic way.
- Dialectical Thought: This involves the ability to understand and integrate contradictory viewpoints or ideas. Emerging adults learn to appreciate that contradictions and conflicts can coexist and can be resolved through synthesis, leading to more nuanced and sophisticated thinking.
Describe identity development in emerging adulthood, including the perspective of Erikson
- Still seeking identity achievement
- Erikson: crisis of intimacy vs. isolation
- Loneliness peaks in emerging adulthood, even with high quantity of friendships
- Lives stay linked with parents emotionally, financially
- Belonging=fundamental value
Describe the development of vocational identity from childhood onwards
The development of vocational identity begins in childhood with role-playing and early interest
In adolescence, different career options influenced by family, peers, and personal interests.
In emerging adulthood, higher education and work experiences help refine career goals.
During early adulthood, individuals establish their careers and seek advancement.
Middle adulthood often brings career consolidation and potential transitions.
Finally, in late adulthood, there’s a focus on preparing for retirement and reflecting on career achievements. Throughout these stages, personal experiences, social influences, and opportunities shape vocational identity.
Explain various characteristics of emerging adults that may contribute to their level of happiness
1.) not yet experienced financial stress
2.) high autonomy/self-reliance
3.) friendship and romantic relationship equality
4.) agreement between actual self and “felt” age
5.) increased self-esteem
6.) optimism
Describe the relevance of attachment theory for young adults – in what ways is attachment related to social adjustment?
Adult attachment varies along dimensions of anxiety and avoidance – secure attachment is low in both.
Describe Erikson’s perspective on psychosocial development in middle adulthood
Generativity vs. stagnation
- Increases responsibility, increases opportunities for contribution
Explain various challenges that make middle adulthood a time for increased stress for some
- Family life and balancing needs
- Midlife identity
- Health and hormonal changes
- Intelligence
- Work
Explain the ideas behind the terms sandwich generation, boomerang kids, and empty nesters, and describe their potential implications for stress and adjustment of adults
- Sandwich generation: increasing number of mid-adults balancing caregiving of children and parents
- Boomerang kids: those who return home after living independently
- Empty nest: role loss- worse adjustment as parenting goes away
- Role stress relive- better adjustment as parent goes away?
Define senescence, and how it is reflected in physical, hormonal, and neurological changes
What are buffers against the aging process?
the (natural) aging process (physical and cognitive)
determined by genes and lifestyle
Buffers: exercise, sleep, sense of control, social support
Explain the hormonal milestone of menopause, and describe its biological and social impact
Menopause is the natural biological transition when a woman’s ovaries stop producing eggs, leading to the end of menstruation and a decline in estrogen and progesterone levels. hot flashes, mood swings, and an increased risk of osteoporosis and heart disease occur.
Socially, menopause can impact mental health, self-esteem, and relationships, with varied cultural perceptions—some seeing it as a positive life stage, while others may associate it with aging.
Describe differences by sex and SES in terms of aging trends– consider life expectancy, morality and illness, health, etc.
Who finds aging more concerning? women
Who has a longer life expectancy? women
Who has higher rates of illness and disease? men
Who is more proactive in health decisions? women
SES and Worldwide trends:
Is health generally better for low or high SES? higher
Is life expectancy increasing or decreasing worldwide? increasing
Is the US higher or lower in life expectancy relative to other high-income countries? lower
Define and provide examples of the two “clusters” of intelligence
Explain age-related differences in the trajectory and importance of these forms
Fluid : quick, flexible, efficient use of information processing and working memory
Crystallized : cumulative knowledge, reflected in long-term memory functioning
Describe findings regarding age differences in intelligence, and specific ways that these findings differ depending on study methodology
Cross-sectional studies: intelligence declines with age- young people score higher in IQ tests when tested at the same time
Longitudinal studies: find that on average, IQ increases throughout adulthood, up to a point
Cross-sequential Seattle Longitudinal Study: compare multiple groups over time, and suggest several nuances
Describe the idea of expert cognition, why it’s most possible in adulthood, and what cognitive skills are reflected in expertise
Expert cognition = greater use of…
Intuition: from rule following to experience guided expectancies
Automaticity: from conscious to automatic processing
Strategies: efficiency in optimizing outcomes
Flexibility: better responses to challenging situations
Describe the characteristics of a midlife crisis and explain its influencing factors
period of anxiety, radical reevaluation, and sudden transformation
More to do with developmental history than age – NOT everyone
Summarize two theories that depict healthy balancing of needs (Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and Self-Determination theory)
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs: must fulfill basic needs (like food and safety) before progressing to higher needs, such as love, esteem, and self-actualization. A healthy balance is achieved when individuals satisfy all these levels, enabling personal growth and fulfillment.
Self- determination theory: SDT emphasizes the importance of meeting three core psychological needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness. When these needs are fulfilled, individuals experience greater motivation, well-being, and personal development
Identify and explain the Big 5 theory of personality traits
Openess: imagination, feelings, actions, ideas
Conscientiousness: competence, self- disipline
Extroversion: sociability, emotional expression
Agreeableness: coorperative, trustworthy
Nueroticism: tendency toward unstable emotions
Explain the main assumptions of developmental science.
Developmental science describes, explains, predicts, and intervenes in characteristics and patterns of change (physical, cognitive, and social-emotional).
Describe what multicontextual refers to in lifespan development.
Development occurs in many contexts. Baltes identified 3 specific contextual influences: normative age-grade influences, normative history-graded influences, and non-normative life influences.
Describe what multidirectional refers to in lifespan development
Development can be continuous, or discontinuous, and it is not always linear. Every change entails both growth and loss.
Describe what multidimensional refers to in lifespan development
We change across three general domains: physical, cognitive and psychosocial.
Physical: changes in height, weight, sensory capabilities, the nervous system, & the propensity for disease and illness.
Cognitive: changes in intelligence, wisdom, perception, problem-solving, memory and language.
Psychosocial: changes in emotion, self-perception, and interpersonal relations with families, peers, and friends.
Describe what plastic refers to in lifespan development
Traits and outcomes are moldable, yet durable
Describe what multicultural refers to in lifespan development.
Socioeconomic status, social class, ethnicity, race and culture affect development.
Describe what multidisciplinary refers to in lifespan development
Development requires the theories, research methods, and knowledge base of many academic disciplines.
Define socioeconomic status (SES), and explain how it may affect development.
SES is a way to identify families and households based on their shared levels of education, income and occupation.
Having higher SES often is associated with having greater control and freedom over their job and their life. Control and freedom are associated with job satisfaction, personal happiness, and ultimate health and well-being.
Having lower SES is often associated with jobs more subject to job disruptions, including lay-offs and lower wages.
Differentiate the issue of activity/passivity in development.
active: highlight the role of individual agency and proactive engagement in shaping development.
passive: emphasize the influence of external factors and stimuli on developmental outcomes, with individuals responding to their environment rather than actively directing their own growth.
Differentiate the issue of nature/nurture in development.
nature: emphasizes genetic and biological factors as primary determinants of development.
nurture: highlights the role of environmental influences and experiences in shaping development.
Differentiate the issue of universal/context-specific in development.
universal: theorists propose a common developmental path that applies broadly across humanity
context-specific: theorists argue that development is influenced by unique cultural and environmental contexts, leading to variations in developmental outcomes
Differentiate the issue of continuous/discontinuous in development.
continuous: theorists say that each stage of development asserts distinct and sequential qualities and characteristics that are qualitatively different from the other stages.
discontinuous: theorists believe that development is slow and gradual, and that skills are developed overtime
Differentiate the issue of stable/changing in development.
stable: theorists argue that the personality traits of adults are rooted in the behavioral and emotional tendencies of the infancy and young child.
changing: believe that the initial tendencies change based on social and cultural forces over time.
Psychoanalytic - Identify characteristic assumptions, major influencers, their contributions and potential criticisms.
Assumptions - personality develops through unconscious early conflicts
Influencers - Freud and Erikson
Contributions - processes that are outside of our awareness matter
Criticisms - the unconscious is hard to measure, development doesn’t necessarily occur in concrete stages, little evidence to support psychosexual theory, too negative?
Behaviorism/Learning theories - Identify characteristic assumptions, major influencers, their contributions and potential criticisms.
Assumptions -
1. Behavior is learned from the environment
2. Observable behavior is the primary focus
3. Emphasis is on objective, measurable behaviors
4. Learning occurs through conditioning
5. Past experiences shape behavior
Influencers -
Watson and Skinner
Contributions -
1. Little Albert study
2. Led to more careful science
3. Created the foundation for behavior therapies (ex. ABA)
Criticisms -
1. Unobservable things matter
2. Direct reinforcement is not always necessary for learning
Social Learning Theory - Identify characteristic assumptions, major influencers, their contributions and potential criticisms.
Assumptions -
1. Learning occurs through cognitive processes and by watching others (ex. modeling, self-efficacy and outcome expectations)
Influencers -
Bandura
Contributions -
1. Bobo Doll Experiment
2. Concept of reciprocal determinism (the dynamic interaction between individuals, their behavior, and their environment)
Criticisms -
1. Underestimation of Biological Factors
2. Difficulty in Measuring Observational Learning
Cognitive - Identify characteristic assumptions, major influencers, their contributions and potential criticisms.
Assumptions -
1. Mental processes can be studied scientifically
2. Learning is influenced by internal factors (memory, perception, biases, thought, etc.)
3. Learning requires active participation
Influencers -
Piaget and Vygotsky
Contributions -
1. Influences on education
2. Understanding and acknowledging thought
Criticisms -
1. Reductionism/Oversimplification
2. Neglect of Individual Differences
Describe what Bronfenbrenner emphasized in his ecological-systems approach.
Bronfenbrenner emphasized that human development occurs within a complex system of relationships. He stressed the dynamic, reciprocal relationships between the individual and their environment across these levels.
Includes: the individual, the microsystem (immediate surroundings), mesosystem (connections between microsystems), exosystem (indirect influences), macrosystem (cultural and societal context), and chronosystem (time and historical context)
Define reciprocal determinism & how does it fit into the grand perspectives of development?
Reciprocal determinism involves a bidirectional environment <–> person influence
Relates to social learning theory
Apply all theoretical perspectives (behaviorism, social learning theory, cognitive, ecological systems, and environmental determinism) by explaining how they’d each explain why a student excels in school.
Behaviorism (Skinner, Pavlov)
- The student excels because they receive positive reinforcement, such as praise from teachers or rewards from parents, which encourages continued academic success.
Social Learning Theory (Bandura)
- The student observes peers or older siblings excelling in school and models their study habits and behaviors, motivated by social approval and imitation.
Cognitive (Piaget)
-The student has developed effective problem-solving and critical thinking skills appropriate for their cognitive stage, allowing them to excel academically through logical reasoning.
Ecological Systems Theory (Bronfenbrenner)
- The student’s success is influenced by supportive parents and teachers (microsystem), a well-resourced school environment (exosystem), and cultural values that prioritize education (macrosystem).
Environmental Determinism
- The student excels due to external factors, such as growing up in a well-funded educational system or living in a community that places strong emphasis on academic achievement, which determines their success.
Describe differences between correlational & experimental designs and the inferences that can be drawn from studies using each. Why are both designs critically important to developmental science?
Correlational Designs -
Differences: Examine relationships between variables without manipulation.
Inferences: Identify associations but cannot determine causation.
Experimental Designs:
Differences: Manipulate variables and control conditions to test causation.
Inferences: Establish cause-and-effect relationships.
Importance: Correlational designs identify patterns and guide further research, while experimental designs test causality and evaluate interventions. Both are essential for understanding and advancing developmental science.
Explain differences between cross-sectional, longitudinal, and cross-sequential research, and why researchers may opt to use any of these (what are the benefits/downsides of each?)
Cross-sectional -
Single time-point (ex. comparing groups across an age level)
* doesn’t always display usable data
Longitudinal -
Collecting data repeatedly on the same sample at multiple time-points
* expensive, retention challenges
Cross-sequential research -
Studying several groups of people of different ages over time
* expensive, retention challenges
Explain what a field experiment is, focusing especially on Randomized Control Trials (RCTs) – what do they tell us?
Randomized control trials (RCTs; feild experiments) take place out of the lab and still include random assingent to conditions
These give us authentic reactions, insights into human behavior, decision-making, and societal dynamics that are more closely aligned with real-life situations than laboratory studies.
Understand practical considerations when conducting developmental research
- In logintudial research: participant retention
- validilty of measurment based on age
- achknowlagement based on changing context with age and maturity
Describe ethical considerations when conducting developmental research
- Institutional reveiw board approval(s) are necessary
- minors (under 18), older adults, pregnant women, prisoners, and other vunerable population
- careful participant recruitment
- parent consent and participant assent approriate for age
- appropriate incentives
- confidentality (must always minimize harm)
- collarbrations, replications, and transparency
- poltics can drive research questions and funding
- public misintreprtations
Understand the definition and importance of behavioral genetics
The study of the interplay between genetic and envriomental contributions to behavor
Describe and give examples of the three types of genotype-environment correlations ( passive, evocative, active)
- Passive: children inherit genetic tendencies from parents, who also provide envrioment that match their own genetic tendencies
example: musical parents have musical children, and are likely to provide an envrioment rich in music - Evocative: Genetic tendencies elicit (evoke) stimulation from the envrioment
example: a happy outgoing child elicits smiles and friendly responses from others - active: Children actively seek out “niches” in their envrioment that reflecton their own intrests and talents
example: seeking out libaries, sport fields, music class, etc
Describe the idea of gene-environment interactions in development
Provide an example of an interaction (think in terms of depicting either susceptibility to environment or genes manifesting differently depending on environment)
Gene-environment interactions refer to the way genetic predispositions and environmental factors work together to influence an individual’s development.
An example of a gene-environment interaction is the impact of stress on mental health. Individuals with a genetic predisposition to depression may be more susceptible to developing depression if exposed to stressful life events, such as trauma or chronic stress.
Explain the principles underlying twin studies and adoption studies as behavioral genetic designs
twin studies -
compare correlation between identical twins relative to fraternal twins
(stronger correlation in identical twins may imply more genetic influence)
adoption studies -
compare scores of adopted children to biological and adoptive families
(stronger correlation to biological families suggests more genetic influence)
adoptive twin studies -
compare identical twins reared together to those reared apart
(similar correlations between twins’ traits suggest little environmental influence)
