exam one (9/25)

Question 1

Describe what multicontextual refers to in lifespan development.

Answer 1

Development occurs in many contexts. Baltes identified 3 specific contextual influences: normative age-grade influences, normative history-graded influences, and non-normative life influences.

Question 2

Why do we take a lifespan approach?

Answer 2

Because development is lifelong and involves growth, maintenance and regulation constructed through biological, socio-cultural and individual factors.

Question 3

Explain the main assumptions of developmental science.

Answer 3

Developmental science describes, explains, predicts, and intervenes in characteristics and patterns of change (physical, cognitive, and social-emotional).

Question 4

Describe what multidirectional refers to in lifespan development.

Answer 4

Development can be continuous, or discontinuous, and it is not always linear. Every change entails both growth and loss.

Question 5

Describe what multidimensional refers to in lifespan development.

Answer 5

We change across three general domains: physical, cognitive and psychosocial.

Physical: changes in height, weight, sensory capabilities, the nervous system, & the propensity for disease and illness.
Cognitive: changes in intelligence, wisdom, perception, problem-solving, memory and language.
Psychosocial: changes in emotion, self-perception, and interpersonal relations with families, peers, and friends.

Question 6

Describe what plastic refers to in lifespan development.

Answer 6

Traits and outcomes are moldable, yet durable.

Question 7

Describe what multicultural refers to in lifespan development

Answer 7

Socioeconomic status, social class, ethnicity, race and culture affect development.

Question 8

Describe what multidisciplinary refers to in lifespan development.

Answer 8

Development requires the theories, research methods, and knowledge base of many academic disciplines.

Question 9

Differentiate periods of development

Answer 9

Prenatal development
Infancy and toddlerhood
Early childhood
Middle & late childhood
Adolescence
Emerging adulthood
Established adulthood
Middle adulthood
Late adulthood

Question 10

Explain the first 5 stages of development.

Answer 10

Prenatal development
Infancy and toddlerhood
Early childhood
Middle & late childhood
Adolescence
Prenatal development: conception occurs and development begins. Concerned with nutrition, teratogens, labor & delivery.

Infancy and toddlerhood (0-2 years): dramatic growth and change.

Early childhood (2-6 years): “preschool years”, language learning, sense of self, increased independence.

Middle & late childhood (6 - puberty): school focused, assessing abilities, comparing oneself to others.

Adolescence (puberty-18): overall growth spurt, sexual maturation, cognitive change, a sense of invincibility puts adolescents at risk for STIs and severe accidents.

Question 11

Explain the last 4 stages of development

Answer 11

Emerging adulthood
Established adulthood
Middle adulthood
Late adulthood (2 categories)
Emerging adulthood (18-29 years): identity exploration, prep for full independence, at their physiological peak, at risk for violent crime and substance abuse.

Established adulthood (30s - early 40s): concerned with intimate relationships, family building, and work.

Middle adulthood (mid 40s - mid 60s): aging is noticeable, at their peak of productivity in love and work.

Late adulthood (65-84): relatively healthy, productive, active and independent. at risk for disease.

Late adulthood (85+): less healthy, productive, active, and independent. at risk for disease.

Question 12

Define and give examples of three types of contextual influences: normative age-graded (1/3)

Answer 12

Similar for individuals in a particular age group (ex. starting school, puberty, menopause).

Question 13

Define and give examples of three types of contextual influences: normative history-graded (2/3)

Answer 13

Common generational experiences due to historical events (ex. 9/11, civil war, COVID).

Question 14

Define and give examples of three types of contextual influences: non-normative life events (3/3)

Answer 14

Unusual occurrences that have a major life impact (ex. teen pregnancy, death of a child, winning the lottery).

Question 15

Define socioeconomic status (SES), and explain how it may affect development.

Answer 15

SES is a way to identify families and households based on their shared levels of education, income and occupation.

Having higher SES often is associated with having greater control and freedom over their job and their life. Control and freedom are associated with job satisfaction, personal happiness, and ultimate health and well-being.
Having lower SES is often associated with jobs more subject to job disruptions, including lay-offs and lower wages.

Question 16

Differentiate the issue of activity/passivity in development.

Answer 16

active: highlight the role of individual agency and proactive engagement in shaping development.

passive: emphasize the influence of external factors and stimuli on developmental outcomes, with individuals responding to their environment rather than actively directing their own growth.

Question 17

Differentiate the issue of nature/nurture in development.

Answer 17

nature: emphasizes genetic and biological factors as primary determinants of development.

nurture: highlights the role of environmental influences and experiences in shaping development.

Question 18

Differentiate the issue of universal/context-specific in development.

Answer 18

universal: theorists propose a common developmental path that applies broadly across humanity

context-specific: theorists argue that development is influenced by unique cultural and environmental contexts, leading to variations in developmental outcomes.

Question 19

Differentiate the issue of continuous/discontinuous in development.

Answer 19

continuous: theorists say that each stage of development asserts distinct and sequential qualities and characteristics that are qualitatively different from the other stages.

discontinuous: theorists believe that development is slow and gradual, and that skills are developed overtime

Question 20

Differentiate the issue of stable/changing in development.

Answer 20

stable: theorists argue that the personality traits of adults are rooted in the behavioral and emotional tendencies of the infancy and young child.

changing: believe that the initial tendencies change based on social and cultural forces over time

Question 21

Psychoanalytic - Identify characteristic assumptions, major influencers, their contributions and potential criticisms.

Answer 21

Assumptions -
Influencers - Freud and Erikson
Contributions -
Criticisms - the unconscious is hard to measure, development doesn’t necessarily occur in concrete stages, little evidence to support psychosexual theory, too negative?

Question 22

Behaviorism/Learning theories - Identify characteristic assumptions, major influencers, their contributions and potential criticisms.

Answer 22

Assumptions -
1. Behavior is learned from the environment
2. Observable behavior is the primary focus
3. Emphasis is on objective, measurable behaviors
4. Learning occurs through conditioning
5. Past experiences shape behavior

Influencers -
Watson and Skinner

Contributions -
1. Little Albert study
2. Led to more careful science
3. Created the foundation for behavior therapies (ex. ABA)

Criticisms -
1. Unobservable things matter
2. Direct reinforcement is not always necessary for learning

Question 23

Describe what Bronfenbrenner emphasized in his ecological-systems approach.

Answer 23

Bronfenbrenner emphasized that human development occurs within a complex system of relationships. He stressed the dynamic, reciprocal relationships between the individual and their environment across these levels.

Includes: the individual, the microsystem (immediate surroundings), mesosystem (connections between microsystems), exosystem (indirect influences), macrosystem (cultural and societal context), and chronosystem (time and historical context)

Question 24

Social Learning Theory - Identify characteristic assumptions, major influencers, their contributions and potential criticisms.

Answer 24

Assumptions -
1. Learning occurs through cognitive processes and by watching others (ex. modeling, self-efficacy and outcome expectations)

Influencers -
Bandura

Contributions -
1. Bobo Doll Experiment
2. Concept of reciprocal determinism (the dynamic interaction between individuals, their behavior, and their environment)

Criticisms -
1. Underestimation of Biological Factors
2. Difficulty in Measuring Observational Learning

Question 25

Cognitive - Identify characteristic assumptions, major influencers, their contributions and potential criticisms.

Answer 25

Assumptions -
1. Mental processes can be studied scientifically
2. Learning is influenced by internal factors (memory, perception, biases, thought, etc.)
3. Learning requires active participation

Influencers -
Piaget and Vygotsky

Contributions -
1. Influences on education
2. Understanding and acknowledging thought

Criticisms -
1. Reductionism/Oversimplification
2. Neglect of Individual Differences

Question 26

Compare Locke’s tabula rasa idea to Rousseau’s ideas of biological maturation.

Answer 26

John Locke (tabula rasa, or “blank slate”) -
- We are formed through experiences and society “writes” itself upon us (NURTURE)

Jean Jacques Rousseau:
- Children are “noble savages” & naturally develop positively based on biological timing (NATURE)

Question 27

Define environmental determinism & how does it fit into the grand perspectives of development?

Answer 27

Environmental determinism involves a unidirectional environment –> person influence

Relates to behaviorism/learning theory

Question 28

Define reciprocal determinism & how does it fit into the grand perspectives of development?

Answer 28

Reciprocal determinism involves a bidirectional environment <–> person influence

Relates to social learning theory

Question 29

Apply all theoretical perspectives (behaviorism, social learning theory, cognitive, ecological systems, and environmental determinism) by explaining how they’d each explain why a student excels in school.

Answer 29

Behaviorism (Skinner, Pavlov)
- The student excels because they receive positive reinforcement, such as praise from teachers or rewards from parents, which encourages continued academic success.

Social Learning Theory (Bandura)
- The student observes peers or older siblings excelling in school and models their study habits and behaviors, motivated by social approval and imitation.

Cognitive (Piaget)
-The student has developed effective problem-solving and critical thinking skills appropriate for their cognitive stage, allowing them to excel academically through logical reasoning.

Ecological Systems Theory (Bronfenbrenner)
- The student’s success is influenced by supportive parents and teachers (microsystem), a well-resourced school environment (exosystem), and cultural values that prioritize education (macrosystem).

Environmental Determinism
- The student excels due to external factors, such as growing up in a well-funded educational system or living in a community that places strong emphasis on academic achievement, which determines their success.

Question 30

What is the process of scientific inquiry? Also, why are empirical evidence and replication important?

Answer 30

Observation
Question
Hypothesis
Experiment/Research
Data Collection
Analysis
Conclusion
Report/Communicate

Empirical evidence is important to ensure that conclusions are grounded in measurable, observable facts rather than assumptions or theories alone (offers reliability and credibility).

Replication involves repeating studies to verify results. It is essential because it confirms the reliability and validity of findings.

Question 31

Developmental info collection: What are self-reports? Describe characteristics and potential limitations.

Answer 31

Self-Reports -
Collecting data through questionnaires, interviews, or surveys where participants report their own thoughts, feelings, or behaviors
(Limitations: bias and subjectivity)

Question 32

Developmental info collection: How are psychological tests/lab tasks/psychophysiological assessments used? Describe characteristics and potential limitations.

Answer 32

Psychological Testing:
Using standardized tests and assessments to measure cognitive, emotional, or behavioral traits. (Limitations: test validity and reliability)

Question 33

Developmental info collection: How are archival data and case studies used? Describe characteristics and potential limitations.

Answer 33

Archival Data -
Analyzing existing records or documents (e.g., historical records, educational records, medical files) to study developmental trends and patterns.
(Limitations: data gaps and lack of control)

Case Studies -
In-depth examination of an individual or a small group to explore complex developmental issues or unique cases.
(Limitations: limited generalizability, subjectivity)

Question 34

Describe differences between correlational & experimental designs and the inferences that can be drawn from studies using each. Why are both designs critically important to developmental science?

Answer 34

Correlational Designs -
Differences: Examine relationships between variables without manipulation.
Inferences: Identify associations but cannot determine causation.

Experimental Designs:
Differences: Manipulate variables and control conditions to test causation.
Inferences: Establish cause-and-effect relationships.

Importance: Correlational designs identify patterns and guide further research, while experimental designs test causality and evaluate interventions. Both are essential for understanding and advancing developmental science.

Question 35

Explain differences between cross-sectional, longitudinal, and cross-sequential research, and why researchers may opt to use any of these (what are the benefits/downsides of each?)

Answer 35

Cross-sectional -
Single time-point (ex. comparing groups across an age level)
*doesn’t always display usable data

Longitudinal -
Collecting data repeatedly on the same sample at multiple time-points
*expensive, retention challenges

Cross-sequential research -
Studying several groups of people of different ages over time
* expensive, retention challenges

Question 36

Explain what a field experiment is, focusing especially on Randomized Control Trials (RCTs) - what do they tell us?

Answer 36

Field Experiment -
Conducts research in real-world settings with controlled variables

Randomized Control Trials (RCTs) -
Participants are randomly assigned to either an experimental or control group to test intervention effectiveness

Both help to establish causation and measure the real-world impact of interventions

Question 37

What are some practical considerations when conducting developmental research?

Answer 37

• In longitudinal research: participant retention
• Validity of measurement based on age
• Acknowledgement of changing contexts with age and maturity

Question 38

What are some ethical considerations when conducting developmental research?

Answer 38

IRB approvals are required
- minors (under 18), older adults, pregnant women, prisoners, etc. are classified as vulnerable populations
- careful participant recruitment
- parental consent and participant assent as appropriate for age
- appropriate incentives
- confidentiality
- collaboration, replication, and transparency
- politics can drive research questions and funding
- public misinterpretation of results

Question 39

Define independent and dependent variables.

Answer 39

ndependent variable - a condition that is manipulated, or changed, by a scientist

dependent variables - observed and measured during an experiment; experimental data

Question 40

Understand the definition and importance of behavioral genetics

Answer 40

The study genetic variation affects psychological phenotypes (traits), including cognitive abilities, personality, mental illness, and social attitudes.

Question 41

Describe and give examples of the three types of genotype-environment correlations (passive, evocative, active)

Answer 41

passive -
children inherit genetic tendencies from parents, who also provide environment that match their own genetic tendencies.
ex. children actively seek out “niches” in their environment that reflect their own interests and talents

evocative -
genetic tendencies elicit (evoke) stimulation from the environment.
ex. a happy, outgoing child elicits smiles and friendly responses from others.

active -
children actively seek out “niches” in their environment that reflect their own interests and talents.
ex. seeking out libraries, sports fields, music class, etc.

Question 42

Define genetic abnormality, and explain general prevalence rates as they relate to maternal age

Answer 42

Genetic Abnormality -
Any alteration in the typical structure or number of chromosomes or mutations in specific genes that lead to developmental disorders or medical conditions.

As maternal age increases, so does the risk for genetic abnormality development.

Question 43

Describe the idea of gene-environment interactions in development. And provide an example of an interaction (think in terms of depicting either susceptibility to environment or genes manifesting differently depending on environment)

Answer 43

Gene-environment interactions refer to the complex relationship between an individual’s genetic makeup and their environmental experiences in shaping development.

Ex. Studies have shown that children with the low-activity MAOA gene are more likely to exhibit aggressive behavior if they experienced childhood maltreatment. Without such an environment, the gene’s influence on behavior may be minimal.

Question 44

Explain the principles underlying twin studies and adoption studies as behavioral genetic designs

Answer 44

twin studies -
compare correlation between identical twins relative to fraternal twins
(stronger correlation in identical twins may imply more genetic influence)

adoption studies -
compare scores of adopted children to biological and adoptive families
(stronger correlation to biological families suggests more genetic influence)

adoptive twin studies -
compare identical twins reared together to those reared apart
(similar correlations between twins’ traits suggest little environmental influence)

Question 45

Provide examples of some genetic disorders

Answer 45

Down Syndrome
- Presence of an extra copy of chromosome 21.
- Characterized by developmental delays, intellectual disabilities, and distinct facial features. It may also lead to heart defects and other health issues.

Sickle Cell Anemia
- Mutation in the HBB gene, which provides instructions for making hemoglobin, a protein in red blood cells.
- Causes red blood cells to become crescent or “sickle” shaped, leading to blockages in blood flow, pain, and risk of organ damage

Question 46

Define the periods of fetal development and describe what characterizes each (including risk factors, major developments, timing)

Answer 46

Germinal period (0-2 weeks)
- Conception
- Cell multiplication
- Implantation occurs by attaching to the uterus (this fails around 60% of the time)

Embryonic period (3-8 weeks)
- Major organs develop (organogenesis)
- Neural tube forms
- Limbs emerge
- At 8 weeks: less than 2” long, less than an ounce
- Spontaneous abortion occurs in around 20% of cases

Fetal period (9 weeks-birth)
- Sex organs develop
- Significant brain development
- Age of viability- around 22 weeks
- Spontaneous abortion occurs in around 5% of cases

Question 47

Explain what teratogens and their threshold effects refer to - give several examples of teratogens and their effects

Answer 47

Teratogens -
Substances or environmental factors that can cause malformations or functional deficits in a developing fetus when exposure occurs during pregnancy.

Threshold Effect -
Teratogens may not cause harm unless exposure exceeds a certain level or threshold. Below this threshold, the substance may have little to no impact on fetal development, but once the threshold is crossed, the risk of damage increases significantly.

Ex.
1. Alcohol - Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FASD)
2. Tobacco - Low birth weight, preterm birth, and increased risk of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)
3. Mercury - Neurological damage
4. Radiation - Miscarriage, brain damage, and an increased risk of childhood cancers.

Question 48

Explain the principles of cephalocaudal and proximodistal patterns of growth

Answer 48

cephalocaudal - from head to toe
proximodistal - from middle outward

Question 49

Provide examples of challenges and complications that some people endure during pregnancy (hypertension, diabetes, etc.)

Answer 49

gestational diabetes - can cause high blood sugar levels, potentially leading to complications like macrosomia (large baby), preterm birth, and increased risk of type 2 diabetes for the mother later on

hypertension/preeclampsia - can lead to high blood pressure, increasing the risk of preterm birth and affecting maternal and fetal health

Question 50

Describe postpartum depression and its risk factors (that is, what might make developing PPD more likely?)

Answer 50

postpartum depression -
around 8-15% of women experience feelings of sadness, inadequacy and difficulty handling a newborn

risk factors include…
- previous mental health concerns
- traumatic birthing experience
- challenges with the baby’s health
- lack of support system

Question 51

Explain some of the variation parents experience with regards to the birthing experience, both in terms of voluntary choice and needed medical interventions

Answer 51

Voluntary Choices -
1. Natural vaginal birth vs. epidural
2. Home birth vs. hospital birth
3. Water birth vs. notVoluntary Choices -
1. Natural vaginal birth vs. epidural
2. Home birth vs. hospital birth
3. Water birth vs. not

Medical Interventions -
1. Induced Labor
2. Emergency C-Section
3. Preterm Birth and NICU Admission

Medical Interventions -
1. Induced Labor
2. Emergency C-Section
3. Preterm Birth and NICU Admission

Question 52

Describe the primary functions of the APGAR test

Answer 52

Appearance (skin color)
Pulse (heart-rate)
Grimace (coughing/crying)
Activity (muscle tone)
Respiration (respiratory effect)

• tested immediately after birth
• scored scored 1-10 overall (0-2 per category)

Question 53

Describe the three stages of the birthing process

Answer 53

1) Dilation and Effacement
- cervix thins (effaces) and widens (dilates) via muscular contractions that increase in frequency and pain

2) Birth
- fetus descends through uterus and into and out of birth canal; head crowns, shoulders rotate

3) Afterbirth - Expulsion of Placenta
- pushed out to avoid infection and help uterus return to normal

Question 54

Recognize the social and safety concerns of decisions regarding sleeping in infancy

Answer 54

Co-sleeping (Room-sharing) -
Encouraged by pediatricians, particularly for the first 6-12 months, because it allows for close monitoring and easy access for feeding. It reduces the risk of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) while providing a balance between safety and parental presence.

Bed-sharing:
Common in many cultures but is associated with increased SIDS risk, especially when blankets, pillows, or soft surfaces are involved. In some countries, parents practice safe bed-sharing by minimizing some risks, while facilitating bonding and breastfeeding.

Separate rooms:
In the U.S., having babies sleep in a separate room is more common as babies grow older. While this promotes independence, it’s usually safer to keep babies in the same room during their first 6 months to reduce the risk of SIDS.

Question 55

Describe the patterns and importance of sleep during infancy

Answer 55

• Newborns sleep up to 18 hours a day (50% of the time in REM)
• REM sleep is essential for brain development, learning, emotional regulation, and psychological adjustment.
• By around 3 months, infants develop clearer distinctions between sleep and alert states.

Ample sleep -
Correlated with normal brain maturation, learning, emotional regulation, and psychological adjustment

Question 56

Describe processes of brain development in the first few years of life (including what myelination, synaptic booming and pruning refer to)

Answer 56

Myelination - insulates the to speeds up signal transmission. As more axons are myelinated, children develop better control over their movements, thoughts, and sensory responses.

Synaptic booming - rapid expansion of synaptic connections. It allows the brain to absorb and process large amounts of information from the surrounding environment, including language, visual stimuli, and social interactions.

Pruning - where unused or weak synaptic connections are eliminated. This process ensures that the brain becomes more efficient by retaining only the connections that are frequently used.

Question 57

Identify the main structures of a neuron, and how they communicate

Answer 57

Neurons -
1. Cell body, contains the nucleus.
2. Axons, sends electrical impulses to other neurons.
3. Dendrites, receive signals from other neurons.

Question 58

Understand sensation & perception and identify examples of each

Answer 58

Sensation - the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and detect stimuli from the environment (raw input from environment)
(Ex. visual stim, auditory stim, tactile stims)

Perception - not automatic (something shapes how we perceive and respond to stimuli)
(Ex. memory, presences)

Question 59

Explain the sensory abilities present at birth/during early infancy - how might we know if infants can experience pain, respond to touch, taste, smell, see, or hear?

Answer 59

Pain - changes in facial expression and vocalization in response to painful stimuli, such as heel pricks for blood tests.

Touch - soothing reactions to gentle touch and skin-to-skin contact with caregivers.

Taste - positive reactions to sweet tastes and negative reactions to bitter or sour tastes.

Smell - show preferences for the smell of their mother’s milk over other odors

Hear - will turn their head in response to auditory stimuli

See - (last sense to develop) will direct eyes to their mother, rather than a stranger

Question 60

Distinguish between fine motor skills, gross motor skills, and reflexes

Answer 60

Motor Skills - learned ability to move some part of the body
*Gross - large body movements, starts “prereaching” (walking)
*Fine - small body movements (holding something with 2 fingers)

Reflexes - inherent responses that do not need to be taught/conditioned

Question 61

Provide several examples of reflexes and their functions

Answer 61

moro - spreading arms out (to protect from “falling”)

babinski - spreading toes apart (to stimulate lower extremities)

sucking - (to feed)

rooting - turning head and opening mouth (to prepare for feeding)

tonic neck reflex - turning head to one side (to prepare for reaching)

Question 62

Explain some of the major motor skills developed in infancy, and the variability surrounding “milestones”

Answer 62

lifts head - 0-3 weeks

chest up with arms as support - 2-4 months

sits without support - 4.5-7.5 months

stands without support - 9.5-14 months

walks without support - 11-14 months

Question 63

Describe the role of habituation procedures in understanding infant cognition. Provide an example of a study finding using this technique

Answer 63

Habituation -
Decreased responsiveness to stimuli (attention) after repeated presentation. Because familiarity requires memory, we know that infants are able to store memories.

Ex.
Showing the #4 to an infant, recording looking time, over trials, the amount of looking time decreased. When a new number was displayed, the looking time increased slightly from the previous trial, but then fell similarly to before.

Question 64

Explain the Piagetian concepts of schema, assimilation, and accommodation

Answer 64

Assimilation - incorporating new info into existing thoughts.

Accommodation - changing existing thoughts to include new info.

Schemas guide our behavior and understanding of the world.

Question 65

Describe Piaget’s Sensorimotor stage of cognitive development, including: basic characteristics, circular reactions, concepts that apply to particular circular reaction stages, and potential criticisms of Piaget’s work

Answer 65

Characteristics -
cognition and learning develops from the senses and motor abilities

Circular Reactions -
feedback loops between baby and something else

1. Primary Rxns (stages 1 & 2): learning through own body using senses & reflexes, which develop into first-acquired adaptations (ex: adapting to bottle)
2. Secondary Rxns (stages 3 & 4): learning through interactions between self and objects or people (develop object permanence: understanding that things exist outside of visibility)
3. Tertiary Rxns (stages 5 & 6): active exploration & experimentation independently (develop deferred imitations: repeating observed behavior, even when a significant amount of time has passed)

Criticisms -
1. He underestimated infants’ cognitive abilities.
2. He was too rigid in staging everything - development is more fluid and can vary significantly between individuals.

Question 66

Understand the idea of the “universal sequence” in language development

Answer 66

Regardless of culture, it is a universal experience that babies follow a 5-step model for producing verbal language.

Question 67

Contrast multiple theories of language development (nativism & the language acquisition device vs. learning theory vs. social pragmatics)

Answer 67

Theory 1: Language needs to be reinforced (Skinner)

Theory 2: Nativism (Chomsky) - language acquisition device)

Theory 3: Socialization Fosters Language (Bandura) - born with ability, but need social experience to develop

Question 68

**

Use Erikson’s psychosocial theory to characterize development during infancy

Answer 68

Infancy
- trust v. mistrust
- trusting, or not, that basic needs will be met

Early Childhood
- autonomy v. shame/doubt
- develop a sense of independence in tasks

Question 68

Explain various ways that infants communicate - cooing, babbling, gesturing, holophrasic speech, telegraphic speech

Answer 68

1. Cooing - long vowel sounds (aaaaa oooooo) ~2 months
2. Babbling - repeating syllables (e.g., da-da-da) ~6ish months
3. First words - ~1 year
4. Gesturing
5. Holophrasic speech - (single words with meaning, variations in tone) ~12-14 months
6. Naming explosion - sudden increase in vocabulary (~18 months lots of variation)
7. Telegraphic speech - sentences with only essential words “mommy go work” 2-2.5 years

Question 69

Describe Bowlby’s theory of attachment: define attachment, explain what its implications for later development are, and the idea of a “secure base”

Answer 69

Attachment - an emotional bond that endures across time and space
Leads to…
- Better emotional and social adjustment during childhood and later
- More positive peer interactions
- Higher self-esteem
- Higher social skills
- Appropriate communication
- Emotion regulation

Secure Base - a stable and reliable source of comfort and safety that an infant relies on to confidently explore their environment. The primary caregiver provides this secure base through consistent and responsive care.

Question 70

Describe the idea of working models

Answer 70

Internal Working Model - child’s mental representation of the self, attachment figure(s), and relationships in general

Question 71

Explain Ainsworth’s theory of attachment styles, and contrast four styles using the Strange Situation technique

Answer 71

1. Secure: plays happily; is not happy Mom left; is happy when she returns (50-70%)
2. Insecure-Avoidant: plays; keeps playing; ignores Mom (10-20%)
3. Insecure-Anxious: clings, will not play; is not happy Mom left; stays upset when she returns (10-20%)
4. Disorganized: may not play; may show fear or react negatively; acts out when she returns (5-10%)

Question 72

Contrast primary (basic) vs. secondary (self-conscious) emotions, and provide examples of each

Answer 72

Primary Emotions (first 6-8 months)
- surprise, interest, joy, anger, sadness, fear, and disgust
- smiles are reflexive from birth; social around 6 weeks; familiar around 5-6 months
- anger distinguishable around 6 months; frustration by 1 year, peaks around 1.5 years

Self-Conscious Emotions
- guilt, shame, pride, embarrassment, empathy, and jealousy
- Unlikely to occur in first year (though this is debated)
- Cultural differences in expression of self-conscious emotions (ex. western cultures emphasize pride and praise often)`

Question 73

What is the definition and role of self-awareness? (particularly in emotions)

Answer 73

Self-conscious emotions require sense of self as separate from others.

Self-awareness: realization that body, mind, and actions are separate from others
- around one year, “me” and “mine”
- “rouge test”: self-recognition in mirror

Question 74

Define temperament, and describe the idea of goodness of fit parenting

Answer 74

Temperament - individual differences in behavioral styles, emotions, and characteristic ways of responding

Goodness of fit parenting - degree to which temperament is compatible with social environment (parenting)
- Caregivers can find pattern of responses to child’s temperament that produces a smooth interaction

Question 75

Describe the ideas of synchrony and social referencing

Answer 75

Social referencing - the process where infants look to their caregivers or other familiar adults for cues on how to respond to unfamiliar or ambiguous situations (because they cannot self-regulate yet)