Ideologies - Liberalism

Question 1

What is Liberalism?

Answer 1

A wide-ranging political movement that has its origins in the Enlightenment.
It’s central value is that individuals have a fundamental right to personal freedom.
Arose in the collapse of feudalism.

Question 2

Define: Doctrine

Answer 2

A doctrine is a strongly held single view or collection of connected views. It is less comprehensive than an ideology in that it does not encompass a complete vision of a desired society.
Eg. For liberals, the desire for freedom.

Question 3

What were the main philosophies of The Enlightenment (18/19th century)?

Answer 3

• Each person is born a free, equal and rational individual.
• An individual does not have to accept the judgement of rulers to determine what is in his/her own best interest.
• Society doesn’t consign each person to a fixed status.

The enlightenment therefore opened people’s minds to new possibilities such as challenge the existing order including absolute monarchy.

Question 4

What is Locke’s view on the idea of government?

Answer 4

Locke dramatically rejects the idea of any form of government established without the expressed consent of the people.
~Two Treatises of Government (1689)

Question 5

What are natural rights?

Answer 5

A concept developed by philosophers in the 17/18th century, it asserts that all individuals are born with rights that are granted by God or Nature.

Examples include: Life, Liberty and the pursuit of happiness.

Question 6

Define: Capitalism

Answer 6

Capitalism is the name given to the economic system that emerged in Europe during the 18/19th century. It describes a system in which entrepreneurs take risks in organising production and extract a profit in return.

Question 7

What is the link between Liberalism and Capitalism?

Answer 7

Just as liberalism was made possible by Enlightenment philosophy, so it became necessary in order to underpin the development of free-market capitalism.
• Economic changes were occurring as a result of the growth of international trade and the early stages of the industrial revolution.
• This was spawning new social classes and independent entrepreneurs - new economic structure.

Question 8

Define: Laissez-faire

Answer 8

A term referring to a form of governing that interferes to a minimum extent in economic and social life.
“Hands-off” let the market do what it wants.

Question 9

What are the core values of Liberalism?

Answer 9

LIBERTY/FREEDOM
• individual freedom - negative/positive, minimal state intervention
TOLERANCE
• religious tolerance fundamentally (freedom of conscience), ‘Every man may enjoy the same rights that are granted to others’
EQUALITY OF OPPORTUNITY
• CL proposed a society in which individuals were largely free from restraint and therefore free to succeed or fail
PLURALISM
• power shouldn’t be concentrated in the hands of a few (eg. Gov) - pluralism enhances freedom and spreads opportunity
JUSTICE
• legal - rule of law as everyone is equal,gov by consent, social intervention of state to decrease social inequality
REASON
• reason is innate but not to the extent that it is infallible, opposes restrictive paternalism

Question 10

Define: Negative Liberty

Answer 10

Freedom without external restraint / absence from external forces.

• Poverty, disadvantage and disease may be regarded as misfortunes, but from this pov they cannot be said to limit freedom.
• Classical Liberalism supports this at it leaves the individual at Liberty to act on his/her will.

Question 11

Define: Positive Liberty

Answer 11

Freedom to act upon ones own free-will.

• Recognises social disadvantage (not just law and physical restraint) as an enemy of freedom.
• Modern Liberalism, comes close to identifying freedom with equality of opportunity.

Question 12

Define: Civil society

Answer 12

Refers to the wide variety of groups that flourish in pluralist societies. For example families, political parties, religious organisations, etc.

Question 13

Describe Utilitarianism (CL)

Answer 13

Main concept is ‘utility’ meaning satisfaction.
Not for external powers to decide what gave people utility, we can calculate costs and benefits for ourself.
Assumes the people are consumers who are motivated by self-interest, seeking pleasure.
Led in Britain by JEREMY BENTHAM.
~ free-trade and free-market economy
~ ‘The greatest happiness for the greatest number of individuals’

Question 14

Describe Social Darwinism (CL)

Answer 14

“Heaven helps those who help themselves” - Samuel Smiles.
The source of social problems such as poverty can be located within the individual themselves, those who are willing and have the ability to work will prosper, those who are lazy will not.
Work ethic is essential, survival of the fittest as everyone has different abilities.
Minimal government interference to avoid a dependency culture.

Question 15

Describe Welfare (Social liberalism)

Answer 15

As part of coalition gov 1940, William Beveridge was given the job of creating welfare state.
Expanded equality of opportunity and positive freedom through redistribution and the state maximising people’s potential.
Recognised that although we are born equal we are not the same (eg. after The war those who had disabilities were not free to work).

Question 16

KEY LIBERAL THINKER: John Locke

Answer 16

Predates the term ‘liberal’, father of the Whig philosophy.
Promoted religious and political tolerance as it was part of Natural rights (God given - a gov could not claim legitimacy through God, but had to respect natural rights of the people).

Question 17

KEY LIBERAL THINKER: John Stuart Mill

Answer 17

Son of utilitarian philosopher James Mill.

Mill believed that freedom would maximise human progress by promoting innovation, creativity and self fulfilment - with the assumption that humans are creative beings.

Question 18

KEY LIBERAL THINKER: Thomas Hill Green

Answer 18

~Proposed that we are not merely self-seeking individuals who have no responsibility for others, we have an obligation to the welfare of others.
~In order for us to progress we must do so collectively - our freedom depends upon all people enjoying the same freedom. State intervention can allow individuals to take advantage of their freedom.

Question 19

KEY LIBERAL THINKER: William Beveridge

Answer 19

~Did not fear the extension of state intervention in society, especially in terms of welfare.
~Opposed free-market economy as it did not support social justice (as shown in the Great Depression of the 1930s).
~We must have equal legal and political rights, deprivation was a curtailment to freedom.

Question 20

KEY LIBERAL THINKER: John Rawls

Answer 20

Formed a bridge between modern liberal and social democratic thought.

“An individual has Sovereign right over his mind/body but each must respect that all have equal right to Liberty.”

Question 21

KEY LIBERAL THINKER: Isaiah Berlin

Answer 21

~ In his analysis of freedom, distinguished between 2 rival concepts - positive + negative freedom.
~ Distinction between being ‘free to do something’ and being ‘free from something’.
For example: free to work in whatever career, free from being forced to join the army.

Question 22

Hobbes opinion on freedom

Answer 22

Hobbes defined freedom as the ‘silence of laws’

Question 23

Evaluate negative liberty

Answer 23

Promotes a ‘survival of the fittest’ system which undermines equality of opportunity and social justice.

This conception of freedom may simply legitimise greed and grant the weak nothing more than the ‘freedom to starve’.

Question 24

Evaluate positive Liberty

Answer 24

Classical Liberals and New Right who believe this principle is linked to the growth of the ‘nanny state’ as it allows our interests to be defined for us and so robs us of responsibility for our own lives.

Question 25

What corrections did JS Mill make to his ideas

Answer 25

On Liberty 1859 acknowledged that people had to be constrained from harming others. However, Mill did not accept any restrictions on individuals designed to prevent self-harm.

Question 26

What is the Liberalist view on justice?

Answer 26

• Human beings are seen as born equal therefore are of equal moral worth.
• ML: disapproves of a system of privileges that are enjoyed by a few and denied to everyone else eg. due to race/creed/religion/social background (opposite to CL).

Question 27

What is the liberalist view on tolerance?

Answer 27

• Rooted on the assumption that humans are separate and unique creatures, since tolerance is a guarantee of personal autonomy.
• The basis of pluralism, necessary to strike a balance among conflicting interests.

Question 28

What did Lord Acton say about Power?

Answer 28

“Power tends to corrupt and absolute power corrupts indefinitely”.

Question 29

What is the link between liberalism and the constitution?

Answer 29

Liberals believe in a limited gov and this can only be achieved through constitutional constraints that ensure: the rights of the governed, rule of law and checks and balances.

~ power should be distributed via separation of power/federalism/bicameralism.
~ gov should be established via consent in order to be a sufficient safeguard.
~ Limits of jurisdiction must be defined, as they review power of gov and interpret laws.
~ assumes humans are selfish so constitutional restrictions are necessary.

Fear of democracy due to concentration of power/tyranny of the majority. Humans are self-seeking creatures, therefore limits are necessary.

Question 30

What is the main difference between Classical liberalism and Modern liberalism?

Answer 30

Shift of individualism to collectivism - role of the state and the responsibility of the individual.

Question 31

What is the impact of compulsory education (ML)?

Answer 31

Evens the playing field, everyone has equality of opportunity.
Education is the best way for individual fulfilment.

Question 32

How did Locke and Hobbes conflict on ideas about the government?

Answer 32

Locke: disobey the government if it violates your natural rights

Hobbes: even repressive government is better than no government at all

Question 33

What does Montesquieu say about power?

Answer 33

“Power should be a check to power”

i.e. Constitutionalism, power should also lie independently outside the government. The constitution should limit gov.

Question 34

Describe Libertarianism

Answer 34

Most extreme form of liberalism.
The state is an unwarranted restriction on freedom and its functions should be reduced to a minimum.
Free market can solve most social problems.
Share ideologies with liberalism, in modern day - will associate themselves with conservatives, stop short of anarchism.

Question 35

What is the importance of industrialisation?

Answer 35

Changed classical to modern.
After WW2, poverty slums and social inequality increased therefore new measures were needed.
Minimal state of the CL was incapable of rectifying injustices.

Question 36

Why is the classical liberal view on self fulfilment controversial?

Answer 36

During the 19th century it came to light that many members of society through unfortunate circumstances of birth/no fault of their own, were not blessed with equal opportunity to benefit from such a free society.
Early social researchers, such as Charles booth revealed that there was a cycle of deprivation, and there was little that could be done to break this cycle. Even Mill came to accept this as a problem.

Question 37

What is the importance of William Gladstone?

Answer 37

He led the newlyformed liberal party of Great Britain, with one of its goals being elementary education for all. As well as entry into the professions being open to a wider spectrum of society.

Question 38

What is the difference in CL and ML views on popular democracy?

Answer 38

CL: prefer property owners exclusively voting in elections rather than universal suffrage, as property owners of that time were considered to be more responsible in their outlook than the general public. Opposed popular democracy - tyranny of majority.

ML: Government through consent therefore popular democracy is preferred. Widens political equality.

Question 39

Describe new liberalism

Answer 39

Limited welfare provision in terms of economy.
Based on the fact that poorer sections of society were unable to benefit from the economic freedoms that classical liberals had supported.
Society has the potential to progress collectively provided that all individuals are able to take advantage of their freedom - philosophy supplied by T.H.Green, we have a social obligation.

Question 40

What is the difference in CL and ML views on the role of state?

Answer 40

CL: against government paternalism, individuals are the only judge of what is best for them (as we are rational) therefore minimal state interference. Support a laissez-faire state as it is less likely to encroach upon freedoms. Negative freedom>positive

ML: The state should not possess absolute power, however they should have an increased interference through the use of state sponsored welfare schemes. Do not support the idea of unqualified welfare as they are aware of the danger of dependency.
Positive freedom>negative.

Question 41

What is the difference in CL and ML views on the economy?

Answer 41

CL: free market in which the laws and forces of supply and demand are free from any intervention or authority. Will inevitably lead to some kind of hierarchy but it’s up to the individual as to where they want to be positioned.

ML: opposes a completely free market because certain individuals will inevitably be exploited if left without any help. Great disbelief in the “hidden hand” as it cannot efficiently regulate society, as not every individual is self-reliant.

Question 42

What is the difference in CL and ML views on justice?

Answer 42

CL: both believe in legal justice (rule of law) as it consists of equal application and equal rights. In terms of social justice, inequality is natural and in a free society all social outcomes are just.

ML: social justice can only be achieved through intervention from the state (a sufficient judicial branch).

Question 43

What does the French Philosopher Voltaire say about tolerance?

Answer 43

“I detest what you say, but I shall defend to the death your right to say it.”

Question 44

What is the difference in CL and ML views on tolerance?

Answer 44

• Both genuinely agree as tolerance on all beliefs and values permits individual freedom.
• However if the security of the state or individual is threatened or people are being incited into violence then it cannot be tolerated.

ML: Some say they demonstrate a greater tolerance (eg. Sexuality) however others argue that the reason behind this is because society is much more multicultural than it was previously, therefore more accepting.

Question 45

What is John Rawls ‘difference principle’?

Answer 45

The desire to avoid poverty is greater than attraction of riches. Therefore some measure of inequality is necessary to provide incentive to work.

Question 46

What is the Liberalist view on reason/rationality?

Answer 46

• The world is a rational structure and knowledge flows from reason rather than experience. Stems from Enlightenment period.
• The power of reason gives people the capacity to take charge of their own lives and to shape their own destiny. Rational individuals are the best judge in what is in their best interest.
• Fundamentally education is needed to promote self development.
• Conflicts can be resolved through rational arguments and debates, rather than through force.
• Explains why liberals have faith in reform as opposed to revolution, gradual expansion of human knowledge allows for this.

Question 47

What is the link between liberalism and democracy?

Answer 47

• Democracy means rules and regulations which could be an enemy of individual liberty.
• JS Mill said that open debate exposes bad ideas - once liberalism accepts moral pluralism, it is difficult to contain within a ‘liberal’ framework.
• Liberal democracy is a hybrid combining limited gov with popular rule. Representative/indirect democracy is best.
• James Madison argued the best safeguard against majoritarian tyranny was checks and balances.

Question 48

Thomas Jefferson quote on government

Answer 48

“That government is best which governs least”.

Question 49

Quote on meritocracy/economic incentive/economic inequality

Answer 49

“The drunk in the gutter is just where he ought to be” - William Sumner

Question 50

What are the 3 forms of equality?

Answer 50

• Foundational equality - all individuals are equal by merely being human and thus deserving of fundamental human rights.
• Formal equality - legal equality via rule of law, political equality via one person one vote and one value.
• Equality of opportunity - equal access and chance of economic success. Negative/positive freedom.

Question 51

Define: economic liberalism

Answer 51

Refers to a belief in the market as a self-regulating mechanism that tends naturally to deliver general prosperity and opportunities for all.

• Implies limited state intervention, therefore promotes negative freedom.
• Market competition, therefore restricts monopolies.
• Advocated by classical liberals

Question 52

Define: social liberalism

Answer 52

Refers to belief in qualified social intervention, particularly focused on welfare provisions for individuals who cannot help themselves.

• Positive freedom to expand equality of opportunity.
• True in terms of education and health, state involvement.
• Advocated by Modern Liberals.