IDEOLOGIES

Question 1

WHAT FACTORS? Modern liberals accept ideas of classical liberals?

Answer 1

Freedom
State size
Economy

Question 2

Liberals: Freedom.

Answer 2

Classics support negative freedom.
J Locke: ‘Two Treatises on Government’ Argued all indivs born equal/free, everyone possesses natural rights e.g., property.
M Wollstonecraft: extent on neg freedom. 1792 ‘A Vindication on the Rights of Women’ argued women as rational as men.
J S Mill: ‘On Liberty’ argues ‘harm principle’. Inheritance should be heavily taxed as unfair advantage… flat rate tax as ‘equality of sacrifice’.

Moderns criticise negative freedom as freedom of choice=exploitation… freedom to starve.
J Rawls: 1971 ‘A Theory of Justice’ liberty principle.

Question 3

Liberals: state size.

Answer 3

Both support principle of self-govt- groups should have power to rule themselves, help protect civil liberties.

Classics advocate minimal state to maximise personal freedom.
Limited state which upholds justice + prevent foreign invasion. Key= army etc.
J Locke: ‘Two Treaties on Government’. Argued for ‘limited govt’ subject to legal restraint.
J S Mill: ‘On Liberty’ govt can only interfere to prevent harm to others. Advocated big freedom of speech even if offensive.

Moderns believe govt purpose to create condits to fulfil indiv potential.
J Rawls: criticise minimal state as ‘freedom to starve’
Moderns like state intervention e.g., poor don’t have freedom to act to wishes so welfare state.
Equality of opportunity!

Classics see Rawls’ ideas unliberal… surrender to socialism.

Question 4

Liberals: economy.

Answer 4

Significant disagreement.

Classics promote laissez-faire based on free market principles.
Argue state dominated economy= monopolies w no motivation to improve quality/reduce prices.
Ideas stemmed from J Locke ‘Two Treatises on Government’.
E.g., 1979-90 Thatcher: reduced state role in economy.

Moderns influenced by Keynesian economics- allows greater state intervention to advance equality of opportunity + maximise indiv freedom.

Question 5

WHAT FACTORS? Socialists on how economy should operate.

Answer 5

Privatisation
Free market
Equality

Question 6

Socialists: privatisation.

Answer 6

Revs: overthrow capitalism to stop exploitation.
K Marx + R Luxemburg: believed rev necessary to rid capitalism, after proletariat should seize capital + operate to benefit everyone.
R Luxemburg: “Those who do not move, do not notice their chains”

Hugely disagrees.
Dems e.g., A Crosland: didn’t desire rev as happy with increase equality in modern society, but make it more equal e.g., high welfare spending etc.

Third Way e.g., A Giddens: limited welfare state, believe encourages ‘culture of dependency’.

Question 7

Socialists: free market.

Answer 7

Socialists believe unchecked market can’t deliver social justice.

Dems want planned economy.
B Webb: state needs to provide for workers’ needs. Centrally planned economy w trained admins to organise society/economy on peoples’ behalf.
A Crosland: capitalism Marx knew has changed, now should have state-managed capitalism. Keynesian economics.

Somewhat disagrees.
Third Way e.g., A Giddens: mixed economy, allow free market to dictate for efficiency/growth but invest heavily in education etc.

Question 8

Socialists: equality in economy.

Answer 8

Socialists aim for equality.
Revs e.g., K Marx: communism.
R Luxemburg: agreed w Marx, but in response to Webb, against evolutionary socialism as impossible to reform capitalism from inside. Can’t reduce capitalism’s probs as essential to work.

Hugely disagrees.
B Webb: central govt deal w inequalities through planned economy.
‘Evolutionary socialism’ rather than rev. Educate ruling class to care for workers.
‘Inevitability of gradualness’ principle.

Question 9

WHAT FACTORS? Conservatives on management and nature of economy.

Answer 9

Role of state over economy
How human nature influences need for type of economy
Capitalist economy

Question 10

Conservatives: role of state over economy.

Answer 10

Most signif area of disagreement regarding state.

Tradit e.g., Oakeshott saw pragmatism as defining idea + tradition key. State intervention necessary.
E.g., post-war govt Macmillan etc, emphasised NHS spending, state house building etc.
Paternalistic state role.

Hugely disagrees with neo-lib economics, focus on reducing state.
R Nozick: ‘minimal state’, allow indivs to flourish. Tax low, anti-welfare state (dependency). Influenced by Adam Smith.
One nation: Disraeli liked regulated economy w minimum intervention (laissez-faire).
Ayn Rand: claimed state must ‘keep its hands off’.

Question 11

Conservatives: human nature influences type of economy.

Answer 11

Tradits/one nation e.g., M Oakeshott believe human imperfection. Indivs intellectually imperfect due to irrational nature, would create instability in free market economy… cause disproportionate rich/poor divide.
Tradit e.g., T Hobbes: neg view. Humans driven by self-interest, would cripple w/o reg as rich/poor divide would= rev. W/o state, life would be ‘nasty, brutish, and short’.

Huge disagreement to neo-libs/neo-cons.
A Rand: humans can rationally pursue self-interests. Should be able to succeed on own merit.
R Nozick: indivs rational. Should be allowe to manage unreg economy.

Question 12

Conservatives: capitalist economy.

Answer 12

Tradit e.g., E Burke: protect capitalism as in organic society, humans need to maintain individualism to create ‘natural aristocracy’. Tradit e.g., M Oakeshott: pragmatism promoted capitalism as previously worked to maintain hierarchy but reduce rich/poor divide.

Similar to neo-libs.
A Rand: pure capitalist economy to increase indiv freedom= promote meritocratic state- indivs respond to success/fail… create hierarchy.
-R Nozick: capitalism’s power unbalance maximises indiv freedom.

Question 13

WHAT FACTORS? Socialists on collectivism.

Answer 13

Human nature
Collectivism emphasis (extent)
Capitalism

Question 14

Socialists: human nature on collectivism.

Answer 14

Revs: human nature is inherently collectivist.
Final form of human development= communism (complete collectivism).
K Marx: indivs naturally like to work together for a common goal. Everyone eventually working together in ‘stateless communism’. Capitalism only abolished through WC uprising.
R Luxemburg: rev necessary to rid capitalism, after proletariat should seize capital + operate to benefit everyone. “Those who do not move, do not notice their chains”

Dems e.g., A Crosland: didn’t want rev as happy w increased equality in modern society, but more equality e.g., high welfare spending. etc.

Question 15

Socialists: emphasis on collectivism.

Answer 15

Revs: huge emphasis on collectivism.
K Marx: create a classless society (communism).

Dems: less emphasis on collectivism.
-A Crosland: agreed with revs about tendency for humans to work together + would be more efficient.
B Webb: agreed view of human tendency to work together, TUs evident. Supported welfare state. Reduce poverty by state-level action, gradual reforms.

General consensus on human collectivist nature but revs think natural but dems believe by welfare state.

Question 16

Socialists: capitalism regarding collectivism.

Answer 16

Revs: communism as more collectivist.
K Marx: any capitalism exploits workers. Believes false consciousness distracts workers from reality. “You have nothing to lose but your chains”.
R Luxemburg: proletariat uprising. Disagreed on evolutionary socialism by Webb.

Dems: believe in gradual change, not by revs.
B Webb: reforms to ensure freedoms but not ‘freedom to starve’. ‘Evolutionary socialism’. State cares for workers.
-A Crosland: don’t need rev but more equal society e.g., welfare state.

Question 17

WHAT FACTORS? Liberals on types of equality.

Answer 17

Equality of opportunity
Equality of outcome
Foundational equality

Question 18

Liberals: equality of opportunity.

Answer 18

Agree.

Classics e.g., M Wollstonecraft: ‘A Vindication on the Rights of Women’ argued women as rational as men, entitled to same rights e.g., education etc.
J S Mill: ‘Subjection of Women’ argued for women’s votes decades before achieved. Like MW, argued women enslaved to husbands. ‘legal dependence of one sex on the other is wrong’.

Moderns e.g., J Rawls: 1971 ‘A Theory of Justice’ argued justice principles chosen behind ‘veil of ignorance’ (indivs unaware of own characteristics). Each indiv right to certain basic liberties.
Rawls equality principle: allows inequalities ONLY if favour those lowest e.g., affirmative action programmes for university.

Question 19

Liberals: equality of outcome.

Answer 19

Classics e.g., J Locke: equality of opportunity rather than outcome.
Classics don’t explicitly mention it but would argue attempts to impose it would lead to excessive state intervention, undermining indiv freedoms.
M Wollstonecraft: focus on women’s rights suggests she would support efforts to address systemic inequalities.

Moderns argue equality of outcome is designed to ensure fairer distribution of chances/wealth.
2010-15 coalition: pupil premium to try decrease social exclusion amongst pupils.
J Rawls: ‘A Theory of Justice’, ‘difference principle’ inequalities ONLY allowed if they benefit lowest in society. Doesn’t use term equality of outcome but more concerned on heavier equality.

Question 20

Liberals: foundational equality.

Answer 20

Foundational equality= everyone should enjoy same legal/political rights e.g., voting.

Classics e.g, J Locke: ‘Two Treatises on Government’. Believed everyone possesses natural rights e.g., property.
J S Mill: ‘On Liberty’ argued everyone has capacity for reason which entitles them to certain rights/freedoms. ‘Harm principle’, indivs can pursue own interests if don’t harm others.

Moderns agree.
J Rawls: indivs equal in moral worth, entitled to basic rights/opportunities.

Question 21

WHAT FACTORS? Liberals on human nature.

Answer 21

Equality of opportunity
Society not equal (freedoms)
Optimistic on human nature
State response on human nature.

Question 22

Liberals: optimism on human nature.

Answer 22

Both optimistic on human nature- indvis rational, morally equal + independent.

Classics e.g., 18th century Enlightenment movement inspired by scientists/philosophers e.g., Isaac Newton. Believed humans capable of reason + logic.
J Locke: ‘reason must be our last judge and guide in everything’.

Moderns e.g., J Rawls: argue indivs behind ‘veil of ignorance’ would make rational + impartial decisions, recognises personal bias.
B Friedan: ‘The Feminine Mystique’ reflects indiv capacity to make rational choices.

Question 23

Liberals: state response to human nature.

Answer 23

Classics e.g., J Locke + J S Mill: society atomistic in nature (made up of indivs with own interests). Advocated egotistical individualism: indivs self-reliant + rational.
J Locke: involved govt would enslave indiv lives.
J S Mill: indivs are sovereign beings, should organise own lives.

Some contrast to moderns, agree over self-reliance but argue state must provide help for every indiv to achieve goal.
J Rawls; ‘veil of ignorance’. Need of welfare state for equality of opportunity.

Question 24

WHAT FACTORS? Liberal on role of state.

Answer 24

General role
Size
Economy involvement

Question 25

Liberals: general role of state

Answer 25

Basic role= big agreement… to protect natural rights.
Natural right= life, property etc, originated from J Locke.
Moderns e.g., J Rawl also like natural rights. ‘Each person is entitled to rights + liberties that are equal to those everyone else has’.

Both agree should respect freedom of speech. Argue indivs must tolerate offense but have duty to ensure actions don’t limit others’ rights.
Don’t support speech which advocates violence. J S Mill: ‘harm principle’.

Agree state should be rationalist in nature.
M Wollstonecraft: indivs should be allowed to express ourselves guided by free will, not authorities, via rationalist education system. Days education gives ‘tools to fulfil your potential’.

Question 26

WHAT FACTORS? Conservatives on role of state.

Answer 26

Overview
Economy
Tradition

Question 27

Conservatives: state overview.

Answer 27

Need for state= big agreement. Argue equality is a myth.

Tradits e.g., T Hobbes human nature neg view. Humans driven by self-interest, would cripple w/o reg as rich/poor divide would= rev. W/o state, life would be ‘nasty, brutish, and short’.
E Burke: advocated rule by natural aristocracy= paternalistic state, emphasises hierarchy + authority (father figure state).
Tradits= decision making needs to be based on what is known to work.

Some contrast to New Right, calls for state reduction but rest authoritarian (like Hobbes).
-M Thatcher: described state as a ‘frame’ for the wider picture of society.
Neo-con danger is it will limit indiv choice of values/lifestyle.

Question 28

Conservatives: state on tradition.

Answer 28

Most believe state has a role maintaining tradition.

Tradits e.g., E Burke: natural aristocracy leads to paternalistic state which emphasises hierarchy/authority (father figure state). Of respect, not obedience.

One nation e.g., Disraeli: emphasised importance of monarchy/church, hierarchy as well as paternalistic ruler who respond to subjects… genuine desire to help not just pragmatic. 1845 Sybil wrote ‘power has one duty- to secure social welfare of the people’, to prevent creation of 2 nations rich + poor.

Huge contrast to New Right.
A Rand: state confine to law + order and national protection. Humans rational so state doesn’t need to be governed by traditional natural aristocracy but anyone.

Neo-cons believe state should promote tradit values, neo-libs no!!

Question 29

WHAT FACTORS? Socialists on equality of outcome/opportunity.

Answer 29

Revolutionaries
Social democrats
Third Way

Question 30

Socialists: revolutionaries on equality of outcome/opportunity.

Answer 30

Support equality of outcome significantly.

K Marx + F Engels: common ownership over means of production within communism. K Marx: “From each according to his abilities, to each according to his needs” - Marx desire to create society where needs not determined by effort/other factors. Revs!
Proletariat become aware of exploitation… develop ‘class consciousness’.
R Luxemburg: revs inevitable as capitalism unsustainable due to surplus value, will collapse. Rev necessary.
Revs aspire towards society determined solely by human need.
Remove private ownership.

Question 31

Socialists: social democrats on equality of outcome/opportunity.

Answer 31

Support equality of outcome to a much lesser extent than revs.
Favour equality of opportunity.
Some see outcome desirable but impossible … instead opt for ‘inevitability of gradualness, as B Webb called for.
Oppose overthrowing state.

B Webb: dismissed Marxist belief in class conflict, called for evolutionary socialism.
Evolutionary socialism= introduction of socialism by democratic institutions.
A Crosland: state intervention (managed capitalism). Mixed economy w high welfare spending… creating opportunities for all… fairer race.

Question 32

Socialists: third way on equality of outcome/opportunity.

Answer 32

Dismiss equality of outcome.

A Giddens: rejected state intervention as ‘culture of dependency’.
Third Way promotes market priority over state, rejecting huge state intervention (wanted hugely by revs) to favour privatisation + regulation.
Like a ‘competitive state’ where WC develops skills/knowledge improving job prospects + economic growth.
A Gidden: ‘equality of inclusion’.

Third Way promotes targeted welfare, seen in Blair govt e.g., school investment.

Question 33

WHAT FACTORS? Socialists on role of class.

Answer 33

Classless society
Recent decline in class politics
Removing/reducing inequality

Question 34

Socialists: classless society.

Answer 34

Social class most signif of social divisions.

K Marx: change occurs from class conflict (Dialectical Materialism) proletariat destined to rise + overthrow ruling class.
R Luxemburg: same as Marx. Argued essential for WC consciousness to overthrow capitalism. Naturally will occur from capitalist discontent… lead to rev.

Huge disagreements with dems/Third Way as want to reduce inequalities rather than remove classes.
A Crosland: managed capitalism… keep classes. Mixed economy with strong welfare state.

A Giddens: proposed ‘Third Way’ approach- favoured market but equality of opportunity. Education important.

Question 35

Socialists: decline in class politics.

Answer 35

Socialism now repped by Labour Party, set up by TUs etc to get MPs repping WCs… NHS, mass building etc.

A Crosland: argued more welfare spending + WC education. Selective grammar schools abolished. Pursue Keynesian economics to reduce unemployment.
Social dems= class less important than revs.
Decline in traditional industries e.g., mining, previously supported WC culture.

A Giddens: ‘The Third Way’ inspired T Blair’s 1997 policies, focuses on communities rather than indivs e.g., minimum wage etc.
Labour adopted policies to appeal to all society, redefined branch of progressivism e.g., environment.
WC Labour vote decline.

Question 36

Socialists: removing/reducing inequalities.

Answer 36

All agree social equality harms community + cooperation.

Revs: human inequality from class exploitation.
K Marx: ‘false consciousness’ e.g., workers distracted by bad treatment.

Dems e.g., A Crosland: increased welfare spending to reduce inequality.

Third Way rejected notion on class politics.
T Blair: declare support for capitalism which support/protected WC potential.
A Giddens: argued for social investment state to develop indiv skills rather than tradit socialism based on class conflict.