ICL 2.0: Theories of Development

Question 1

what is Erikson’s psychosocial theory of development?

Answer 1

it emphasized that the ego makes positive contributions to development by mastering attitudes, ideas, and skills at each stage of development

1. trust vs. mistrust
2. autonomy vs. shame and doubt
3. initiative vs. guilt
4. industry vs. inferiority
5. identity vs. role confusion
6. intimacy vs. isolation
7. generatively vs. stagnation
8. ego-integrity vs. despair

Question 2

what is the trust vs. mistrust stage of Erikson’s psychosocial theory of development?

Answer 2

birth - 1 year

trust based on dependability, consistency and sameness of experience provided by caretaker

social mistrust demonstrated via ease of feeding/depth of sleep

if basic trust is strong, child maintains hopeful attitude – foundation for all other stages

Question 3

what is the autonomy vs. shame and doubt stage of Erikson’s psychosocial theory of development?

Answer 3

1-3 years

biologically includes learning to walk, feed self, talk

need for caretaker to display firmness / set limits before children develop autonomy

toilet training is a major milestone and involves struggle at this age

shame and self-doubt can occur when child becomes self-conscious with negative experiences and if parents overly shame child for their mistakes –parents crush independence

Question 4

what is the initiative vs. guilt stage of Erikson’s psychosocial theory of development?

Answer 4

3-6 years

initiative arises in relation to tasks for the sake of activity, both motor and intellectual

helpful relationships with family members help children achieve positive goals

guilt may arise over goals contemplated, especially goals that violate social norms (i.e., aggression) or if
parents demand too much self-control

sibling rivalry frequent

Question 5

what is the industry vs. inferiority stage of Erikson’s psychosocial theory of development?

Answer 5

6-11 years

child is busy in school learning, creating, and accomplishing many achievements

new found skills (social/academic) lead to productivity and child takes pride in accomplishments

danger of sense of inadequacy and inferiority if child despairs of his skills and status among peers

socially decisive age (school/neighborhood are major influence)

Question 6

what is the identity vs. role stage of Erikson’s psychosocial theory of development?

Answer 6

adolescence

struggle to develop ego identity (sense of who one is)

preoccupation with appearance, hero worship, ideology (how they look to others is critical)

group identity develops – Peers are primary influence

danger of role confusion, doubts about sexual and vocational identity

Question 7

what is the intimacy vs. isolation stage of Erikson’s psychosocial theory of development?

Answer 7

young adulthood

the tasks at this stage are to love and to work

development of close intimate relationships, marriage, life long attachments, meaningful work

without a friend or significant other or a partner in marriage a person can become self centered/isolative/lonely

Question 8

what is the generativity vs. self-absorption and stagnation stage of Erikson’s psychosocial theory of development?

Answer 8

middle adulthood

generativity concerns a person having or raising children, as well as producing things and ideas through work

includes a vital interest outside the home – guiding oncoming generations

stagnation is a barren state

self absorption occurs when people do not care for others, rather their main focus is on oneself and one’s successes

Question 9

what is the ego integrity vs. despair and isolation stage of Erikson’s psychosocial theory of development?

Answer 9

late adulthood

this stage is described as a conflict between the sense of satisfaction that a person feels in reflecting on a life productively lived and despair

despair results from the sense that life has had little purpose or meaning and that time is too short to make a difference

coming to terms with one’s own mortality

Question 10

what is Piaget’s theory of cognitive development?

Answer 10

Piaget’s theory conceives of intellectual development as occurring in four distinct periods of stages

intellectual development is continuous, but the intellectual operations in the different periods are distinctly different

children progress through the four periods in the same order, but at very different rates

the stages do not end abruptly but tend to trail off –> a child may be in two different stages in different areas

both environment and genetics play a role in how each stage is negotiated

Question 11

what are the 4 stages of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development?

Answer 11

1. sensorimotor
2. preoperational
3. concrete operational
4. formal operational stage

Question 12

what is the sensorimotor stage of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development?

Answer 12

ages 0-2 years

child learns about his or her relationship to various objects and uses their senses to explore the world includes learning a variety of fundamental movements and perceptual activities (manipulating objects)

the child is developing meaning for symbols and using words

in the later part of this period the child starts to think about events which are not immediately present

Question 13

what is the critical achievement seen during the sensorimotor stage of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development?

Answer 13

object permanence

it begins at 8 months and defines the child’s ability to understand that objects continue to exist even when they can’t see them

Question 14

what is the preoperational stage of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development?

Answer 14

ages 2-7 years

children use language and try to make sense of the world but have a much less sophisticated mode of thought than adults –> later in the stage it becomes possible to carry on a conversation with a child

they begin to use language and symbols more extensively but they have difficulty with cause and effect

children develop the ability to classify objects on the basis of different criteria, learn to count and use the concept of numbers

limitations of this stage = egocentricism, animism, magical thinking, contration and lack of conservation

Question 15

what are the 5 limitations of the preoperational stage of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development?

Answer 15

1. egocentrism
2. magical thinking
3. animism
4. centration
5. conservation

Question 16

what is egocentrism?

Answer 16

children see themselves as center of the universe and cannot take another’s perspective

this is a limitation of the preoperational stage of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development

Question 17

what is magical thinking?

Answer 17

thoughts cause actions

the belief that one’s ideas, thoughts, actions, words, or use of symbols can influence the course of events in the material world; magical thinking presumes a causal link between one’s inner, personal experience and the external physical world

this is a limitation of the preoperational stage of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development

Question 18

what is animism?

Answer 18

the tendency to attribute human attributes to inanimate objects

this is a limitation of the preoperational stage of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development

Question 19

what is centration?

Answer 19

the tendency to focus all of one’s attention on one characteristic or aspect of a situation, while ignoring others

this is a limitation of the preoperational stage of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development

Question 20

what is conservation?

Answer 20

the awareness that altering a substance’s appearance does not change its basic properties

this is a limitation of the preoperational stage of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development

children cannot conserve at this stage and exhibit centration (i.e., they cannot understand that changing one dimension of an object does not change its other dimensions

Question 21

what is the concrete operational stage of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development?

Answer 21

ages 7-12 years

in this stage a person can do more complicated mental operations but only with real (concrete) objects, events or situations

they can now engage in taking another person’s perspective and they are also now capable of conservation

they can serialize, order, and group things into classes based on common attributes

they also understand the concept of reversibility in that one thing can turn into another and then back again

logical reasons are now understood

Question 22

when does the concrete operational stage of Piaget’s theory of development end?

Answer 22

Piaget thought that the concrete operational stage ended at age eleven or twelve

there is now considerable evidence that these ages are the earliest that stage ends and that many adults remain in this stage throughout their lives

Question 23

what is the formal operational stage of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development?

Answer 23

ages 12+

a formal operational thinker can do abstract thinking and starts to enjoy abstract thought

can formulate hypotheses without actually manipulating concrete objects, and when more adept can test the hypotheses mentally and systematically

is able to think ahead to plan the solution path

person is capable of metacognition, that is, thinking about thinking

Question 24

what limitation seen in the preoperational stage returns in the formal operational stage of Piaget’s theory of development?

Answer 24

egocentrism

1. imaginary audience = tendency for adolescents to believe that they are always the center of attention
2. personal fable = the belief that one is unique and not subject to natural laws that govern others (i.e., “it’s not going to happen to me”)

Question 25

what is the definition of morality?

Answer 25

refers to a set of principles or ideals that help a person distinguish right from wrong and guide one’s actions when faced with dilemmas and problems

learning theorists believe children acquire behavioral norms and values through observation, imitation, and reward. They conclude moral behavior is shaped by environment

cognitive theories such as Piaget’s and Kohlberg’s describe children’s early moral beliefs as oriented toward power and authority

Question 26

what is Piaget’s three stage moral theory?

Answer 26

Piaget studied moral development by questioning children about dilemmas related to the violation of game rules and concluded that they progress through three stages

1. stage 1 = premoral stage
2. stage 2 = heteronomous morality
3. stage 3 = autonomous morality

Question 27

what is the pre-moral stage of Piaget’s three stage moral theory?

Answer 27

before age 6

children exhibit little concern if any for rules

Question 28

what is the heteronomous morality stage of Piaget’s three stage moral theory?

Answer 28

ages 7-10

children believe that rules are set by authority figures and are unalterable

when judging whether an act is “right or wrong”, they consider whether a rule has been violated and what the consequences of the act are

the greater the negative consequences, the worse the act

Question 29

what is the autonomous morality stage of Piaget’s three stage moral theory?

Answer 29

ages 11+

also considered morality of cooperation

children believe that rules are arbitrary and alterable when the people who are governed by them agree to change them

when judging whether an act is “right or wrong”, they focus on the intention of the actor than on the act’s consequences

Question 30

what is Kohlberg’s moral theory?

Answer 30

Kohlberg extended Piaget’s theory to address more complex development in adolescence and adulthood

he interviewed children of all ages by asking them questions about “dilemmas” and analyzing their reasoning behind their answers. He believed that moral development is universal and invariant

Kohlberg’s theory specifies six stages of moral development, arranged in three levels

Level I = preconventional/premoral (before age 11)

Level II = conventional/role conformity (age 11-late adolescence)

Level III = postconventional/self-accepted moral principles (late adolescence/early adulthood)

Question 31

what is level I of Kohlberg’s moral theory?

Answer 31

preconventional/premoral = before age 11

moral values reside in external or in bad acts

the child is responsive to rules but views them in terms of pleasant or unpleasant consequences of actions –> morality is something big people say they must do

stage 1 = obedience and punishment orientation

stage 2 = instrumental purpose/self-interest

Question 32

what is stage 1 of Kohlberg’s moral theory?

Answer 32

obedience and punishment orientation

fear of authority or avoidance of punishment as reason for behaving morally “ I won’t do it, because I don’t want to get punished”

morality is external and the focus for the child is on the rules and the consequences for breaking them

it’s part of Level I: preconventional/premoral

Question 33

what is stage 2 of Kohlberg’s moral theory?

Answer 33

instrumental purpose/self interest

right action is based on satisfying the self’s needs and occasionally others (vs. avoiding punishment)

orientation to reciprocity and equal exchange of favors “you do this for me and i’ll do that for you”

beginning to understand that there are different sides to an issue

it’s part of Level I: preconventional/premoral

Question 34

what is Level II of Kohlberg’s moral theory?

Answer 34

conventional/role conformity = age 11-late adolescence

moral values reside in maintaining the conventional order and expectancies of others and not for reasons of self-interest

children believe that actively maintaining the current social system ensures positive relationships and societal order

this stage corresponds to the age of concrete operations in the cognitive realm

stage 3 = good-boy/good-girl orientation

stage 4 = law and order orientation

Question 35

what is stage 3 of Kohlberg’s moral theory?

Answer 35

good-boy/good-girl orientation

orientation to approval and to pleasing / helping others

conformity to rules because they want to maintain approval and affection of people (friends/family) and want to be a “good person”

action is evaluated in terms of intentions “ I won’t do it because I want people to like me”

it’s part of Level II: conventional/role conformity

Question 36

what is stage 4 of Kohlberg’s moral theory?

Answer 36

law and order orientation

orientation to “doing duty” and to showing respect for authority and maintaining the given social order for its own sake. “I won’t do it because it would break the law”

moral judgments based on rules and laws established by legitimate authorities – laws should always be obeyed and there are no exceptions for anybody

concern is based on society as a whole

it’s part of Level II: conventional/role conformity

Question 37

what is Level III of Kohlberg’s moral theory?

Answer 37

post conventional/self-accepted moral principles = late adolescence/early adulthood

morality is defined in terms of abstract principles and values apart from unquestioning support for society’s rules and laws

the standards conformed to are internal and decisions are based on inner processes and judgment concerning right and wrong

stage 5 = contractual/legalistic orientation

stage 6 = morality of universal ethical principles

Question 38

what is stage 5 of Kohlberg’s moral theory?

Answer 38

contractual/legalistic orientation

norms of right and wrong are defined in terms of laws or institutionalized rules which seem to have a rational basis but can be flexible

Morally right action is consistent with democratically determined laws but laws can be changed if they interfere with basic rights

when conflict arises between individual needs and the law, the law prevails because of its greater good to society

it’s part of level III: postconventional/self-accepted moral principles

Question 39

what is stage 6 of Kohlberg’s moral theory?

Answer 39

the morality of universal ethical principles

orientation not only toward existing social rules, but also toward the conscience and personal values

the right action is controlled by internalized ideals/self-chosen principles and values and pleasing one’s conscience

if one acts otherwise, self-condemnation and guilt result

it’s part of level III: postconventional/self-accepted moral principles

Question 40

what is the Heinz dilemma?

Answer 40

“In Europe, a woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There was one drug that the doctors thought might save her. It was a form of radium that a druggist in the same town had recently discovered. The drug was expensive to make, but the druggist was charging ten times what the drug cost him to make. He paid $200 for the radium and charged $2,000 for a small dose of the drug. The sick woman’s husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he could only get about $1,000 which is half of what it cost. He told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said “No, I discovered the drug and I’m going to make money from it.” So Heinz got desperate and broke into the man’s store to steal the drug for his wife. Should the husband have done that?”

Question 41

what is the solution to the Heinz dilemma using stage 1-6 of the Kohlberg moral theory?

Answer 41

Stage 1 – “You shouldn’t steal the drug because you’ll be caught and sent to jail if you do. “

Stage 2 – “If Heinz wants to risk jail to save his wife, it’s up to him, it’s his life; Same thing for druggist – it’s up to him to decide what he wants to do” or “He should steal the drug for his wife because she may return the favor some day”

Stage 3 - “No one will think you are bad if you steal the drug, but your family will think you are an inhumane husband if you don’t. If you let your wife die you won’t be able to look anyone in the face again”

Stage 4 – “He should steal it. Heinz has a duty to protect his wife’s life; it’s a vow he took in marriage. But, it’s wrong to steal so he would have to take the drug with the idea of paying for it and accepting the penalty of breaking the law later”

Stage 5 – “Although there is a law it wasn’t meant to violate a person’s right to life. If Heinz is prosecuted then the law needs to be reinterpreted to take into account certain situations.”

Stage 6 – “If Heinz doesn’t do everything to save his wife he’s putting some value higher than the value of life. It doesn’t make sense to put respect for property above respect for life itself.”

Question 42

what is the summary of Kohlber’s theory of morality?

Answer 42

Preconventional Level: children accept rules of authority figures and judge actions by their consequences

Conventional Level: conformity to social rules is important. Not for self-interest, rather to maintain societal order and gain approval

Postconventional Level: move beyond unquestioning support for society’s rules/laws in favor of more abstract laws that may be broken in certain circumstances (conscience)