ICL 2.0: Theories of Development Flashcards
what is Erikson’s psychosocial theory of development?
it emphasized that the ego makes positive contributions to development by mastering attitudes, ideas, and skills at each stage of development
- trust vs. mistrust
- autonomy vs. shame and doubt
- initiative vs. guilt
- industry vs. inferiority
- identity vs. role confusion
- intimacy vs. isolation
- generatively vs. stagnation
- ego-integrity vs. despair
what is the trust vs. mistrust stage of Erikson’s psychosocial theory of development?
birth - 1 year
trust based on dependability, consistency and sameness of experience provided by caretaker
social mistrust demonstrated via ease of feeding/depth of sleep
if basic trust is strong, child maintains hopeful attitude – foundation for all other stages
what is the autonomy vs. shame and doubt stage of Erikson’s psychosocial theory of development?
1-3 years
biologically includes learning to walk, feed self, talk
need for caretaker to display firmness / set limits before children develop autonomy
toilet training is a major milestone and involves struggle at this age
shame and self-doubt can occur when child becomes self-conscious with negative experiences and if parents overly shame child for their mistakes –parents crush independence
what is the initiative vs. guilt stage of Erikson’s psychosocial theory of development?
3-6 years
initiative arises in relation to tasks for the sake of activity, both motor and intellectual
helpful relationships with family members help children achieve positive goals
guilt may arise over goals contemplated, especially goals that violate social norms (i.e., aggression) or if
parents demand too much self-control
sibling rivalry frequent
what is the industry vs. inferiority stage of Erikson’s psychosocial theory of development?
6-11 years
child is busy in school learning, creating, and accomplishing many achievements
new found skills (social/academic) lead to productivity and child takes pride in accomplishments
danger of sense of inadequacy and inferiority if child despairs of his skills and status among peers
socially decisive age (school/neighborhood are major influence)
what is the identity vs. role stage of Erikson’s psychosocial theory of development?
adolescence
struggle to develop ego identity (sense of who one is)
preoccupation with appearance, hero worship, ideology (how they look to others is critical)
group identity develops – Peers are primary influence
danger of role confusion, doubts about sexual and vocational identity
what is the intimacy vs. isolation stage of Erikson’s psychosocial theory of development?
young adulthood
the tasks at this stage are to love and to work
development of close intimate relationships, marriage, life long attachments, meaningful work
without a friend or significant other or a partner in marriage a person can become self centered/isolative/lonely
what is the generativity vs. self-absorption and stagnation stage of Erikson’s psychosocial theory of development?
middle adulthood
generativity concerns a person having or raising children, as well as producing things and ideas through work
includes a vital interest outside the home – guiding oncoming generations
stagnation is a barren state
self absorption occurs when people do not care for others, rather their main focus is on oneself and one’s successes
what is the ego integrity vs. despair and isolation stage of Erikson’s psychosocial theory of development?
late adulthood
this stage is described as a conflict between the sense of satisfaction that a person feels in reflecting on a life productively lived and despair
despair results from the sense that life has had little purpose or meaning and that time is too short to make a difference
coming to terms with one’s own mortality
what is Piaget’s theory of cognitive development?
Piaget’s theory conceives of intellectual development as occurring in four distinct periods of stages
intellectual development is continuous, but the intellectual operations in the different periods are distinctly different
children progress through the four periods in the same order, but at very different rates
the stages do not end abruptly but tend to trail off –> a child may be in two different stages in different areas
both environment and genetics play a role in how each stage is negotiated
what are the 4 stages of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development?
- sensorimotor
- preoperational
- concrete operational
- formal operational stage
what is the sensorimotor stage of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development?
ages 0-2 years
child learns about his or her relationship to various objects and uses their senses to explore the world includes learning a variety of fundamental movements and perceptual activities (manipulating objects)
the child is developing meaning for symbols and using words
in the later part of this period the child starts to think about events which are not immediately present
what is the critical achievement seen during the sensorimotor stage of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development?
object permanence
it begins at 8 months and defines the child’s ability to understand that objects continue to exist even when they can’t see them
what is the preoperational stage of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development?
ages 2-7 years
children use language and try to make sense of the world but have a much less sophisticated mode of thought than adults –> later in the stage it becomes possible to carry on a conversation with a child
they begin to use language and symbols more extensively but they have difficulty with cause and effect
children develop the ability to classify objects on the basis of different criteria, learn to count and use the concept of numbers
limitations of this stage = egocentricism, animism, magical thinking, contration and lack of conservation
what are the 5 limitations of the preoperational stage of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development?
- egocentrism
- magical thinking
- animism
- centration
- conservation
what is egocentrism?
children see themselves as center of the universe and cannot take another’s perspective
this is a limitation of the preoperational stage of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development
what is magical thinking?
thoughts cause actions
the belief that one’s ideas, thoughts, actions, words, or use of symbols can influence the course of events in the material world; magical thinking presumes a causal link between one’s inner, personal experience and the external physical world
this is a limitation of the preoperational stage of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development
what is animism?
the tendency to attribute human attributes to inanimate objects
this is a limitation of the preoperational stage of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development
what is centration?
the tendency to focus all of one’s attention on one characteristic or aspect of a situation, while ignoring others
this is a limitation of the preoperational stage of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development
what is conservation?
the awareness that altering a substance’s appearance does not change its basic properties
this is a limitation of the preoperational stage of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development
children cannot conserve at this stage and exhibit centration (i.e., they cannot understand that changing one dimension of an object does not change its other dimensions
what is the concrete operational stage of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development?
ages 7-12 years
in this stage a person can do more complicated mental operations but only with real (concrete) objects, events or situations
they can now engage in taking another person’s perspective and they are also now capable of conservation
they can serialize, order, and group things into classes based on common attributes
they also understand the concept of reversibility in that one thing can turn into another and then back again
logical reasons are now understood
when does the concrete operational stage of Piaget’s theory of development end?
Piaget thought that the concrete operational stage ended at age eleven or twelve
there is now considerable evidence that these ages are the earliest that stage ends and that many adults remain in this stage throughout their lives
what is the formal operational stage of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development?
ages 12+
a formal operational thinker can do abstract thinking and starts to enjoy abstract thought
can formulate hypotheses without actually manipulating concrete objects, and when more adept can test the hypotheses mentally and systematically
is able to think ahead to plan the solution path
person is capable of metacognition, that is, thinking about thinking
what limitation seen in the preoperational stage returns in the formal operational stage of Piaget’s theory of development?
egocentrism
- imaginary audience = tendency for adolescents to believe that they are always the center of attention
- personal fable = the belief that one is unique and not subject to natural laws that govern others (i.e., “it’s not going to happen to me”)
what is the definition of morality?
refers to a set of principles or ideals that help a person distinguish right from wrong and guide one’s actions when faced with dilemmas and problems
learning theorists believe children acquire behavioral norms and values through observation, imitation, and reward. They conclude moral behavior is shaped by environment
cognitive theories such as Piaget’s and Kohlberg’s describe children’s early moral beliefs as oriented toward power and authority
what is Piaget’s three stage moral theory?
Piaget studied moral development by questioning children about dilemmas related to the violation of game rules and concluded that they progress through three stages
- stage 1 = premoral stage
- stage 2 = heteronomous morality
- stage 3 = autonomous morality
what is the pre-moral stage of Piaget’s three stage moral theory?
before age 6
children exhibit little concern if any for rules
what is the heteronomous morality stage of Piaget’s three stage moral theory?
ages 7-10
children believe that rules are set by authority figures and are unalterable
when judging whether an act is “right or wrong”, they consider whether a rule has been violated and what the consequences of the act are
the greater the negative consequences, the worse the act
what is the autonomous morality stage of Piaget’s three stage moral theory?
ages 11+
also considered morality of cooperation
children believe that rules are arbitrary and alterable when the people who are governed by them agree to change them
when judging whether an act is “right or wrong”, they focus on the intention of the actor than on the act’s consequences
what is Kohlberg’s moral theory?
Kohlberg extended Piaget’s theory to address more complex development in adolescence and adulthood
he interviewed children of all ages by asking them questions about “dilemmas” and analyzing their reasoning behind their answers. He believed that moral development is universal and invariant
Kohlberg’s theory specifies six stages of moral development, arranged in three levels
Level I = preconventional/premoral (before age 11)
Level II = conventional/role conformity (age 11-late adolescence)
Level III = postconventional/self-accepted moral principles (late adolescence/early adulthood)
what is level I of Kohlberg’s moral theory?
preconventional/premoral = before age 11
moral values reside in external or in bad acts
the child is responsive to rules but views them in terms of pleasant or unpleasant consequences of actions –> morality is something big people say they must do
stage 1 = obedience and punishment orientation
stage 2 = instrumental purpose/self-interest
what is stage 1 of Kohlberg’s moral theory?
obedience and punishment orientation
fear of authority or avoidance of punishment as reason for behaving morally “ I won’t do it, because I don’t want to get punished”
morality is external and the focus for the child is on the rules and the consequences for breaking them
it’s part of Level I: preconventional/premoral
what is stage 2 of Kohlberg’s moral theory?
instrumental purpose/self interest
right action is based on satisfying the self’s needs and occasionally others (vs. avoiding punishment)
orientation to reciprocity and equal exchange of favors “you do this for me and i’ll do that for you”
beginning to understand that there are different sides to an issue
it’s part of Level I: preconventional/premoral
what is Level II of Kohlberg’s moral theory?
conventional/role conformity = age 11-late adolescence
moral values reside in maintaining the conventional order and expectancies of others and not for reasons of self-interest
children believe that actively maintaining the current social system ensures positive relationships and societal order
this stage corresponds to the age of concrete operations in the cognitive realm
stage 3 = good-boy/good-girl orientation
stage 4 = law and order orientation
what is stage 3 of Kohlberg’s moral theory?
good-boy/good-girl orientation
orientation to approval and to pleasing / helping others
conformity to rules because they want to maintain approval and affection of people (friends/family) and want to be a “good person”
action is evaluated in terms of intentions “ I won’t do it because I want people to like me”
it’s part of Level II: conventional/role conformity
what is stage 4 of Kohlberg’s moral theory?
law and order orientation
orientation to “doing duty” and to showing respect for authority and maintaining the given social order for its own sake. “I won’t do it because it would break the law”
moral judgments based on rules and laws established by legitimate authorities – laws should always be obeyed and there are no exceptions for anybody
concern is based on society as a whole
it’s part of Level II: conventional/role conformity
what is Level III of Kohlberg’s moral theory?
post conventional/self-accepted moral principles = late adolescence/early adulthood
morality is defined in terms of abstract principles and values apart from unquestioning support for society’s rules and laws
the standards conformed to are internal and decisions are based on inner processes and judgment concerning right and wrong
stage 5 = contractual/legalistic orientation
stage 6 = morality of universal ethical principles
what is stage 5 of Kohlberg’s moral theory?
contractual/legalistic orientation
norms of right and wrong are defined in terms of laws or institutionalized rules which seem to have a rational basis but can be flexible
Morally right action is consistent with democratically determined laws but laws can be changed if they interfere with basic rights
when conflict arises between individual needs and the law, the law prevails because of its greater good to society
it’s part of level III: postconventional/self-accepted moral principles
what is stage 6 of Kohlberg’s moral theory?
the morality of universal ethical principles
orientation not only toward existing social rules, but also toward the conscience and personal values
the right action is controlled by internalized ideals/self-chosen principles and values and pleasing one’s conscience
if one acts otherwise, self-condemnation and guilt result
it’s part of level III: postconventional/self-accepted moral principles
what is the Heinz dilemma?
“In Europe, a woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There was one drug that the doctors thought might save her. It was a form of radium that a druggist in the same town had recently discovered. The drug was expensive to make, but the druggist was charging ten times what the drug cost him to make. He paid $200 for the radium and charged $2,000 for a small dose of the drug. The sick woman’s husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he could only get about $1,000 which is half of what it cost. He told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said “No, I discovered the drug and I’m going to make money from it.” So Heinz got desperate and broke into the man’s store to steal the drug for his wife. Should the husband have done that?”
what is the solution to the Heinz dilemma using stage 1-6 of the Kohlberg moral theory?
Stage 1 – “You shouldn’t steal the drug because you’ll be caught and sent to jail if you do. “
Stage 2 – “If Heinz wants to risk jail to save his wife, it’s up to him, it’s his life; Same thing for druggist – it’s up to him to decide what he wants to do” or “He should steal the drug for his wife because she may return the favor some day”
Stage 3 - “No one will think you are bad if you steal the drug, but your family will think you are an inhumane husband if you don’t. If you let your wife die you won’t be able to look anyone in the face again”
Stage 4 – “He should steal it. Heinz has a duty to protect his wife’s life; it’s a vow he took in marriage. But, it’s wrong to steal so he would have to take the drug with the idea of paying for it and accepting the penalty of breaking the law later”
Stage 5 – “Although there is a law it wasn’t meant to violate a person’s right to life. If Heinz is prosecuted then the law needs to be reinterpreted to take into account certain situations.”
Stage 6 – “If Heinz doesn’t do everything to save his wife he’s putting some value higher than the value of life. It doesn’t make sense to put respect for property above respect for life itself.”
what is the summary of Kohlber’s theory of morality?
Preconventional Level: children accept rules of authority figures and judge actions by their consequences
Conventional Level: conformity to social rules is important. Not for self-interest, rather to maintain societal order and gain approval
Postconventional Level: move beyond unquestioning support for society’s rules/laws in favor of more abstract laws that may be broken in certain circumstances (conscience)
