ib psych paper 2 - developmental Flashcards
X
Discuss brain development (structural changes and function) throughout the lifespan.
child vs adult with brain image tech
PET scan: uses radioactive substances known as radiotracers to visualize and measure changes in metabolic processes. It looks at brain activity.
Chugani (2001)
Aim: investigate the effects of early deprivation (environmental factors) on brain development.
Method: lab experiment with correlational data
Details: PET scans were used with 10 children (mean age 8.8) adopted by US families from Romanian orphanages. 85% of these children were placed in orphanages within the first month of their life, and the child-caregiver ratio was low: infants spent up to 20 hours per day in their cribs unattended. There were also two control groups: one group of 17 normal adults (mean age 27.6 years) and one group with 7 age-matched children with focal epilepsy (epileptic symptoms confined to one hemisphere).
Findings: all orphans showed significant deviations from the norm at the time of adoption. At one year in the adoptive home, however, substantial “catch-up” was reported in all 10 children. At the time of the PET scans parents described their children as having largely caught up to their peers, but there were continued concerns with attention difficulties. As compared to normal adults or the non-epileptic hemisphere of children with epilepsy (weird group to use), the orphans in this study showed decreased glucose metabolism in some brain areas; in the prefrontal cortex, amygdala, hippocampus, and the lateral temporal cortex. These areas are known to be strongly interconnected and vulnerable to prolonged periods of stress. Researchers concluded that dysfunction of these brain regions may result from the stress of early deprivation and may be involved in the long-term cognitive and behavioral disturbances observed in some orphans.
Evaluation: small sample size, weird control groups, and could benefit from pre-condition PET scan.
MRI scans: produce detailed images of almost every internal structure in the human body. Scans the body part with a big ass magnet.
Giedd 2004
Aim: investigate the changing anatomy of the brain during adolescence, using MRI scans.
Method: Longitudinal research with correlational data
Details: N=161, ages 5-21 with MRI scans, two years apart
Findings: Shows that the healthy adolescent brain cortex goes through a series of changes.
-white matter increased in a linear pattern, and the rate of growth is practically the same in the four major lobes
-increases in neural pathways
-Gray matter increased and decreased again (due to pruning) at different rates for different brain areas, inverted U-shape
-Gray Matter also had greater regional variation than white matter: frontal grey matter volume peaks at around 11.5 and temporal grey matter volume peaks at about 16.5 years. The prefrontal cortex matures at the latest (early 20s).
Evaluation: high sample size, occurs over a long period of time, low ecological validity in hospital settings.
X
Discuss approaches to research in developmental neuroscience.
Approaches to research: the use of brain imaging technology.
PET scans: use radioactive substances known as radiotracers to visualize and measure changes in metabolic processes. It looks at brain activity.
Chugani 2001
Aim: investigate the effects of early deprivation (environmental factors) on brain development.
Method: lab experiment with correlational data
Details: PET scans were used with 10 children (mean age 8.8) adopted by US families from Romanian orphanages. 85% of these children were placed in orphanages within the first month of their life, and the child-caregiver ratio was low: infants spent up to 20 hours per day in their cribs unattended. There were also two control groups: one group of 17 normal adults (mean age 27.6 years) and one group with 7 age-matched children with focal epilepsy (epileptic symptoms confined to one hemisphere).
Findings: all orphans showed significant deviations from the norm at the time of adoption. At one year in the adoptive home, however, substantial “catch-up” was reported in all 10 children. At the time of the PET scans parents described their children as having largely caught up to their peers, but there were continued concerns with attention difficulties. As compared to normal adults or the non-epileptic hemisphere of children with epilepsy (weird group to use), the orphans in this study showed decreased glucose metabolism in some brain areas; in the prefrontal cortex, amygdala, hippocampus, and the lateral temporal cortex. These areas are known to be strongly interconnected and vulnerable to prolonged periods of stress. Researchers concluded that dysfunction of these brain regions may result from the stress of early deprivation and may be involved in the long-term cognitive and behavioral disturbances observed in some orphans.
Evaluation: small sample size, weird control groups, and could benefit from pre-condition PET scan.
MRI scans: produce detailed images of almost every internal structure in the human body. Scans the body part with a big ass magnet.
Giedd 2004
Aim: investigate the changing anatomy of the brain during adolescence, using MRI scans.
Method: Longitudinal research with correlational data
Details: N=161, ages 5-21 with MRI scans, two years apart
Findings: Shows that the healthy adolescent brain cortex goes through a series of changes.
-white matter increased in a linear pattern, and the rate of growth is practically the same in the four major lobes
-increases in neural pathways
-Gray matter increased and decreased again (due to pruning) at different rates for different brain areas, inverted U-shape
-Gray Matter also had greater regional variation than white matter: frontal grey matter volume peaks at around 11.5 and temporal grey matter volume peaks at about 16.5 years. The prefrontal cortex matures at the latest (early 20s).
Evaluation: high sample size, occurs over a long period of time, low ecological validity in hospital settings.
(brain image tech)
Discuss the roles of peers and play in cognitive and social development.
Psychologists believe that play is an important tool for helping young children develop motor skills, a sense of morality, and even “theory of mind” - that is, the ability to understand that others have beliefs, desires, intentions, and perspectives that are different from one’s own.
Piaget = play develops in line with the stages of cognitive development
Practice play = 0-2 => practice of some useful behavior out of its usual context.
Symbolic play = 2-7 and marks the beginning of representational thought through the use of substitute objects or actions
games with rules around age 7
two types of problems:
Convergent = single correct solution or answer
Divergent = multiple correct answers
Pepler and Ross (1981)
Aim: see if the type of play that children engage in would affect their problem-solving strategies
Method: Lab, 72 children from three daycare centers in southern Ontario
Details: equally divided by sex and age and randomly allocated to one of three conditions (materials for convergent play (puzzle pieces), materials for divergent play (blocks), or read a story to, which served as a control.
Kids were given time to play and then were tested on their ability to solve problems. One of the tests that the children were given presented them with two sets of three figures (vehicles and random shapes) and were asked, to tell or show the experimenter as many ways as possible that one might play with the figures.
Findings: Mean scores of possible ways to play in order = 46, 59, 32
Closing: Shows that more divergent playing = more divergent and creating thinking/skills
Play therefore plays a big part in the childrens development and how they create future skills
Evalutaiton: children were assessed on their problem-solving almost immediately after completing their play experience
may not have reflected their usual play routines
Coie & Dodge, 1988
Aim: sociometric status in play can have a significant effect on the child’s academic performance
Method: Natural study
Details: series of observations of classroom environments
Findings:
*Accepted kids = High sociability, Good cognitive skills, Academic success, Better adjusted as adults
*Rejected aggressive = Poor school performance, Longer-term behavioral and emotional maladjustment, Problems in relationships.
*Rejected withdrawn = Low self-esteem, Poor school achievement
*Neglected = Not always disadvantaged, Can make some friends, More prone to loneliness and depression
Closing: Those who are more accepted by peers and have more support systems have a better record of academic achievement and good social skills in life
X
Discuss potential effects of deprivation or trauma in childhood on later development.
I. Introduction:
childhood trauma and deprivation influence development of individuals from a young age
it can result in anger and helplessness, as well as insecurity, rather than the secure attachment and eagerness to explore your surroundings.
Attachment creates internal working models for future development, using the world, self, and others to create either future trust, love, commitment or mistrust and fear.
Thesis: Childhood trauma and deprivation are discussed as negative childhood factors that have long term consequences for neurodevelopment and psychosocial development.
II. Defining Deprivation and Trauma
*Deprivation = insecure attachment during childhood - attachment = long lasting psychological connection with a meaningful person that soothes in times of stress
*Trauma = emotionally painful, shocking, stressful, and sometimes life threatening experiences (physical, emotional, psychological) - sources = abuse of power, betrayal of trust, entrapment, helplessness, pain, confusion, loss
III. Neurodevelopmental (Cognitive) Development
Chugani et al. (2001)
Aim = activity in the prefrontal cortex of Roman adoptees
Method: Field study
Details: sample of 10 children adopted from Romanian orphanages and compared them with 17 healthy adults and 7 children
Findings: significantly decreased activity in the prefrontal cortex, the hippocampus and the amygdala. dysfunction in these brain regions may have resulted from the stress of early deprivation and might be linked to long-term cognitive and behavioral deficits
IV. Psychosocial Development
Rutter et al, 2007
Aim: investigate the progress of orphans brought to the UK for adoption
Method: Instrumental case study
Details:144 Romanian children adopted by UK families adopted between birth and 24 months and a group of 52 domestic adoptees who had not experienced a depriving institutional experience and were less than 6 months old at the time of adoption
Three groups = Adopted before the age of 6 months, Adopted between 6 months and 2 years, Adopted after the age of two (late adoptees). Both the British and Romanian adoptees were first assessed at the age of 4 years. Data was then collected again at the age of 6 and then a final assessment was carried out at age 11. Semi-structured
interviews were carried out with the adoptive parents to discuss the child’s behaviour. Children were also given standardized tests to assess their cognitive abilities
Findings: Cognitive impairment was found in 15.4% of the adoptees from Romania but in only 2.3% of the adoptees from the UK.
between 6 and 24 months in an institution = 12% of children demonstrated cognitive impairment at age 6
institution for more than 24 months = 36%
Closing: Those that spent a longer time in the institution were more likely to have more persistent cognitive deficiencies and disinhibited attachment due to lack of close, confiding relationships and other factors
V. Conclusion:
Neglect and trauma at a young age can cause both neurological and psychosocial damage to development.
Define resilience and discuss strategies to build resilience.
*Resilience - ability to process and adapt better when faced with difficult situations that can impact development of young children. *Resilience strategies are effective in promoting positive development because it allows children to form some stress relieving strategies and support systems for when they are confronted with harsh situations
*Risk factors that lead to developmental impairments include but are not limited to poverty, no attachment to parental figures or stable people, social isolation, and parental drug use. Each of these factors center around the idea that there is a lack of emotional security and intellectual stimulation.
*Resilience strategies of forming close and secure bonds to others, converting to a religion, and continuing education at an established or community college all provide a sense of belonging, emotional security, and stimulation, allowing for the most developmental growth to occur.
Davis (1947)
Aim: study the childhood isolation of Isabelle
Method: intrinsic case study
Details: isabelle (an illegitimate child) was kept in seclusion. Her mom developed normally until she was 2 when she became deaf/mute after an accident. Mother and child spent time together in a dark room with blinds drawn and separated from the family. Lack of sunlight, fresh air, and proper nutrition led Isabelle to develop a rachitic condition that made locomotion difficult. She later could walk with surgery, but when her intelligence was tested at 6 years old, her mental age was about 19 months and she could not speak.
Findings: after placed in intensive training and stimulation environment, she improved so much that she was considered a child of normal intelligence by the age of eight. Davis (1947) included a mother and daughter who were isolated together providing some of that stimulation and attachment that helps build resilience.
Curtiss (1977)
Aim: is there critical period for language development?
Method: intrinsic case
Details: interviewing her mother, medical reports, recording and observing her and different language and writing tests. Genie, at age of 13, had very little vocabulary and was unable to form words when she was first found. As she was cared for, her speech began to improve, and she was able to form attachments to the staff members who had been looking after her. It is argued that the effects of privation were reversed by intensive rehabilitation.
Findings: Genie was documented as having delayed responses, lazy behaviour, incoherent speech, reliance on gestures and limited sound production. Genie never fully recovers. Her progress beings to slow over the years. Genie, who had no support systems, was locked up by herself, and didn’t have any person to provide any stimulation. Genie was not able to build any resilience due to the lack of emotional support and was not able to recover like Isabella could.
Evalution: Can’t be generalised to normal people or the wider population, The study offers a lot of data but was cut due to lack of scientific results. Horrible ethics, treated horribly
**
Discuss the effects of poverty/socioeconomic factors on cognitive and social development.
*Children growing up in very poor families, with low social status, experience high levels of stress hormones that may impair brain development and cognitive functioning.
*Cognitive researchers have found that poverty is one of the major risk factors in a child’s cognitive development. Factors such as poor nutrition, poverty-related health problems, home environment, parenting practices, and living in poor neighborhoods with high levels of crime and unemployment, are all factors that may impact cognitive development in children.
*Poverty: the state of one who lacks a usual or socially acceptable amount of money or material possessions.
Farah et al (2008):
Aim: To investigate the relationship between environmental stimulation and parent nurturing on cognitive development
Method: Interviews and observations
Details:
Longitudinal study of 110 African American middle school children
They were recruited at birth and evaluated at age 4 and 8 through a series of interviews and observations used to measure their environmental stimulation
Findings:
There was a positive correlation between environmental stimulation and language development
children more stimulated by their environment had better language abilities
Also a positive correlation between parental nurturance and long-term memory performance.
Evaluation:
no cause-effect
not representative sample
the correlation between parental nurturance and memory has also been found in animal research
Mani et al (2003):
Aim: to see if making the participant aware of their financial situation would impact their level of cognitive processing.
Methods: lab experiment
Details:
Participants were from two groups: people with an average income of roughly 20.000 and 70.000 USD.
participants were randomly allocated to one of two conditions:
1. In the easy condition, the scenario would have about $150.
2. In the “hard” condition, the scenario would have about $1500.
Participants were presented with four financial scenarios then given two tests:
1. The first test is a common component of IQ tests.
2. The second test was to test their “cognitive control.” higher score=better
Findings:
in the “easy condition”, there was little difference in cognitive performance on either task under either condition for the “rich” participants.
However, for the “poor” participants, their scores were much lower under the “hard” conditions - that is, when their own financial position was more noticeable.
Mani argues that worry about financial realities often preoccupies the poor, meaning that they have a heavier cognitive load on a day-to-day basis, making it difficult to focus on more demanding cognitive tasks.
Evaluation:
Mani himself said it was a very artificial experiment
Control for confounding variables
Possible demand characteristics
Easily replicable
X
Discuss the development of empathy and theory of mind.
Theory of mind is the ability to attribute mental states to others e.g. beliefs, intentions and knowledge
Empathy is a complex capability enabling individuals to understand and feel the emotional states of others, resulting in compassionate behavior.
Meltzoff (1995)
Aim: study ToM in infants
Method: lab
Details: 18-month old infants were shown target acts by an experimenter that fails at them sometimes. They found that the infants imitated the intended act and not the experimenter’s actual failed act.
In a second experiment, he found that this effect only occurs for human models and not machines - they copied the actual actions of the machine.
Findings: Demonstrates simple ToM as infants understand the intentions of others.
Buttlemann 2007
Aim: To test if primates have Theory of Mind suggesting an evolutionary origin
Method: lab, animal research
Details: 6 chimpanzees were tested in the rational imitation paradigm => there is a machine that produces a light or sound when turned on. The human first demonstrates how to operate the apparatus using no hands (uses leg or head) and then the chimpanzee is given a turn.
- 2 conditions where human had to do so due to an obstruction (e.g. carrying a heavy box with both hands) and the other where the human chooses to do so (with no obstruction)
Findings: Chimpanzees used their hands when the role models behaviour was constrained, showing that they understand the intention behind the action and simply perform the same action in a more accessible way.
- When there was no rational explanation chimpanzees would imitate the behaviour (switching it on with their leg)
Conclusion: Primates have a theory of mind suggesting this is an evolutionary behaviour.
- The aspect of theory of mind shown is that they saw a reason why the human was acting in that way
Discuss attachment in childhood and its role in the subsequent formation of relationships.
Bowlby’s attachment theory = When there is attachment to 2 people, distress occurs when they are separated from the
other. Early development style of attachment can then project onto adult relationships. Early attachment creates an internal working model about ourselves, others and world. We act according to this model.
Hazan and Shaver 1987
Aim: explore the possibility that attachment theory offers a perspective on adult attachment
Method: survey in newspaper
Details: Respondents to a ‘love quiz’ in a local newspaper were asked which of three descriptions best applied to their inner feelings about romantic relationships (secure, insecure-resistant and insecure-avoidant)
PPs also completed a checklist describing childhood relationships with parents - two separate samples were tested:
- sample 1 : 205 men and 412 women between 14 and 82 years of age
sample 2: 108 students (38 men and 70 women)
Findings: Securely attached PPs expressed belief in lasting love
Insecure-avoidant PPs were more doubtful about the existence or durability of romantic love
Both insecure types were vulnerable to loneliness
Conclusion: Their early experiences
built their identity of themselves and influenced the internal working model.
Simpson et al 1996
Aim: attachment styles and relationships
Method: field
Details: tested the role of attachment style by how a sensitive topic was discussed by a dating couple. First, he administered questionnaires to identify an individual’s attachment style. Then the dating couples discussed a major problem in their relationship.
Findings: Insecurely attached individuals tended to be anxious and to employ negative strategies during the discussion - resulting in negative feelings during the discussion and harm to the relationship.
Closing: attachment styles had a clear influence on how couples go about resolving conflict.
Discuss the biological, cognitive, and sociocultural factors that play a role in the formation and development of gender identity.
Gender identity = psychological sene of oneself as man/woman
- schema of self => identity
Biosocial—
Money and Erhard 1972 - biosocial meant to disprove bio but proved both
Aim: To see if a child, whose sex was changed from male to female at 17 months, would develop psychologically as a male or female given that they were treated as a girl.
Method: instrumental case
Details: interviews and observations were carried out, the development of the child was monitored
Findings: Money reported a normal development, showed typical female gender role.
Conclusion: Money concluded that humans are effectively gender neutral at birth up until 2 years of age. Gender is developed predominately as a result of the way a child is labelled at birth.
- The biosocial theory of gender development sees the interaction between biological and social factors as important, rather than simply the direct influence of biology. Money and Ehrhardt claimed that biological factors such as hormones, in combination with how the child is labeled sexually, determine the way the child is socialized.
Cognitive—
Martin and Halverson 1983
Aim: to investigate whether existing sex-typing schemas distort memories of experiences that are inconsistent with existing schemas
Method: lab, 48 children (24 boys, 24 girls) aged 5-6
Details: knowledge of traditional sex-roles was assessed using some inventories. then each child was shown 16 pictures for ten seconds. the children were asked to identify the sex and age of the actor in the picture. Half the pictures displayed the actor doing something consistent with a traditional gender stereotype, and the rest of the pictures something inconsistent. answers were recorded and mistakes corrected. for each picture, the child was asked to rate how similar the actor was to him/herself.
one week later the child was tested for memory for the pictures. they were asked to remember any of the pictures and were then asked: “Do you remember seeing a picture doing [activity] in the picture I showed you last week?”. the child rated how confident he/she was of having seen that activity in the remembered pictures.
finally, the child was asked whether the activity was performed by a woman, man, girl, or boy and to show how confident they were in their answer.
Findings: both boys and girls were more likely to misremember the sex of an actor on inconsistent pictures than on consistent pictures.
both boys and girls were more confident in their recollection of the actor’s sex on consistent pictures than on inconsistent pictures. 84% of the errors were made on pictures with a sex-inconsistent activity
Conclusion: the participants were more susceptible to remember classic/stereotypical gender roles and are less likely to remember those that they have not been taught; therefore, childhood is a critical phase of development as biases and prejudices are hard to get rid of at an older age. they have established a “gender schema” that guides subsequent information processing
Discuss biological, cognitive, and sociocultural factors that explain variation in social roles.
Gender roles = set of prescriptive culture-specific expectations about what is appropriate for men/women
Norms = the rules about what is acceptable to do and say in certain situations
social learning process ARM-R
Money and Erhard 1972 - biosocial meant to disprove bio but proved both
Aim: To see if a child, whose sex was changed from male to female at 17 months, would develop psychologically as a male or female given that they were treated as a girl.
Method: instrumental case
Details: interviews and observations were carried out, the development of the child was monitored
Findings: Money reported a normal development, showed typical female gender role.
Conclusion: Money concluded that humans are effectively gender neutral at birth up until 2 years of age. Gender is developed predominately as a result of the way gender roles are placed on them.
Martin and Halverson 1983
Aim: to investigate whether existing sex-typing schemas distort memories of experiences that are inconsistent with existing schemas
Method: lab, 48 children (24 boys, 24 girls) aged 5-6
Details: knowledge of traditional sex-roles was assessed using some inventories. then each child was shown 16 pictures for ten seconds. the children were asked to identify the sex and age of the actor in the picture. Half the pictures displayed the actor doing something consistent with a traditional gender stereotype, and the rest of the pictures something inconsistent. answers were recorded and mistakes corrected. for each picture, the child was asked to rate how similar the actor was to him/herself.
one week later the child was tested for memory for the pictures. they were asked to remember any of the pictures and were then asked: “Do you remember seeing a picture doing [activity] in the picture I showed you last week?”. the child rated how confident he/she was of having seen that activity in the remembered pictures.
finally, the child was asked whether the activity was performed by a woman, man, girl, or boy and to show how confident they were in their answer.
Findings: both boys and girls were more likely to misremember the sex of an actor on inconsistent pictures than on consistent pictures.
both boys and girls were more confident in their recollection of the actor’s sex on consistent pictures than on inconsistent pictures. 84% of the errors were made on pictures with a sex-inconsistent activity
Conclusion: pictures that followed gender roles of an individual were more easily remembered because the PPs grew up with these expectations
