ib psych paper 2 - abnormal Flashcards
Discuss the concepts of normality and abnormality.
Abnormality is defined by the elements of abnormality approach: deviance, distress, dysfunction, and danger.
The goal of classification systems was to increase the reliability (effectiveness of classification) and validity (accuracy of classification) of a diagnosis of abnormal behavior.
Therefore, we should talk about the reliability and validity of labeling someone as “abnormal” or “normal” in classification systems.
Rosenhan (1973) – validity
Aim: investigate if medical professionals can reliably and accurately distinguish the “normal” from the “abnormal.”
Method: field experiment
Details: 8 participants (5 men and 3 women, with a variety of jobs) (including Rosenhan himself) were recruited to serve as pseudopatients. The mission given to the participants was to present themselves for admission to twelve psych hospitals across 5 different states. All participants followed the same instructions: call the hospital, make an appointment, and complain of hearing voices that say “empty,” “hollow,” and “thud.” Other than those symptoms, all patients acted completely normal and gave truthful information (other than concealing their real name and occupation). All patients were admitted and 7/8 were diagnosed with schizophrenia. Once inside the hospital, participants dropped their pretend symptoms and behaved completely normally. Participants had no idea how long they would be in the hospital (it was up to them to get out of there). All participants took notes on their experiences. The goal of the pseudopatients was to be released as soon as possible. Also, they flushed the meds they were given.
Findings: The length of the hospital stays ranged from 7-52 days, with an average of 19 days. The key finding was that none of the pseudopatients were detected by any of the hospital staff. When the patients left the hospital, their mental health condition was recorded as “schizophrenia in remission.” Doctors appear to not be able to accurately distinguish between “normal” and “abnormal behavior.” Interestingly, 3 of the pseudopatients reported that real patients were suspicious about the patient being mentally ill. Additionally, contact between patients and the staff was minimal and often bizarre. It seemed that the patients were not observed as “real people.”
Conclusion: the method of diagnosing people as “normal” or “abnormal” strongly lacks validity.
Evaluation:
–legally questionable lol
–ethically questionable
–self report data lacks reliability
–high ecological validity
–small sample size
–old study
Nicholls et al (2000) – reliability
Aim: investigate the inter-rater reliability of diagnostic systems (ICD-10, DSM IV, and a specific hospitals, personal diagnostic system)
Method: correlational study
Details: Two practitioners used either the DSM IV, the ICD-10, or the Great Ormond Street Hospital diagnostic system to diagnose 81 children who had come to a specialized clinic with eating problems.
Findings: Reliability was measured based on rates of agreement between the two practitioners, expressed as correlations. The level of correlation was 0.36 for the ICD, 0.64 for the DSM, and 0.88 for the GOS. While the GOS was a more specific diagnostic set (made for diagnosing children) the fact that it had the highest inter-rater correlation raises questions about the reliability of the DSM and ICD. Diagnostic systems should not be easily affected by the researcher’s interpretation.
Evaluation:
–potential ethical considerations: do no harm, informed consent, debrief.
–correlational studies are flawed by nature
—high ecological validity since these practitioners are used to diagnosing, although they might not be used to a specific method.
–control groups, increase validity.
X
Discuss the use of classification systems in diagnosis.
The goal of classification systems was to increase the reliability (effectiveness of classification) and validity (accuracy of classification) of a diagnosis of abnormal behavior.
Therefore, we should talk about the reliability and validity of labeling someone as “abnormal” or “normal” through classification systems.
Rosenhan (1973) – validity
Aim: investigate if medical professionals can reliably and accurately distinguish the “normal” from the “abnormal.”
Method: field experiment
Details: 8 participants (5 men and 3 women, with a variety of jobs) (including Rosenhan himself) were recruited to serve as pseudopatients. The mission given to the participants was to present themselves for admission to twelve psych hospitals across 5 different states. All participants followed the same instructions: call the hospital, make an appointment, and complain of hearing voices that say “empty,” “hollow,” and “thud.” Other than those symptoms, all patients acted completely normal and gave truthful information (other than concealing their real name and occupation). All patients were admitted and 7/8 were diagnosed with schizophrenia. Once inside the hospital, participants dropped their pretend symptoms and behaved completely normally. Participants had no idea how long they would be in the hospital (it was up to them to get out of there). All participants took notes on their experiences. The goal of the pseudopatients was to be released as soon as possible. Also, they flushed the meds they were given.
Findings: The length of the hospital stays ranged from 7-52 days, with an average of 19 days. The key finding was that none of the pseudopatients were detected by any of the hospital staff. When the patients left the hospital, their mental health condition was recorded as “schizophrenia in remission.” Doctors appear to not be able to accurately distinguish between “normal” and “abnormal behavior.” Interestingly, 3 of the pseudopatients reported that real patients were suspicious about the patient being mentally ill. Additionally, contact between patients and the staff was minimal and often bizarre. It seemed that the patients were not observed as “real people.”
Conclusion: the method of diagnosing people as “normal” or “abnormal” strongly lacks validity.
Evaluation:
–legally questionable lol
–ethically questionable
–self report data lacks reliability
–high ecological validity
–small sample size
–old study
Nicholls et al (2000) – reliability
Aim: investigate the inter-rater reliability of diagnostic systems (ICD-10, DSM IV, and a specific hospitals, personal diagnostic system)
Method: correlational study
Details: Two practitioners used either the DSM IV, the ICD-10, or the Great Ormond Street Hospital diagnostic system to diagnose 81 children who had come to a specialized clinic with eating problems.
Findings: Reliability was measured based on rates of agreement between the two practitioners, expressed as correlations. The level of correlation was 0.36 for the ICD, 0.64 for the DSM, and 0.88 for the GOS. While the GOS was a more specific diagnostic set (made for diagnosing children) the fact that it had the highest inter-rater correlation raises questions about the reliability of the DSM and ICD. Diagnostic systems should not be easily affected by the researcher’s interpretation.
Evaluation:
–potential ethical considerations: do no harm, informed consent, debrief.
–correlational studies are flawed by nature
—high ecological validity since these practitioners are used to diagnosing, although they might not be used to a specific method.
–control groups, increase validity.
Discuss the validity and/or reliability of diagnosis.
Rosenhan (1973) (validity), Nicholls et al. (2000)(reliability)
Abnormality is defined by the elements of abnormality approach: deviance, distress, dysfunction, and danger.
The goal of classification systems was to increase the reliability (effectiveness of classification) and validity (accuracy of classification) of a diagnosis of abnormal behavior.
Therefore, we should talk about the reliability and validity of labeling someone as “abnormal” or “normal” in classification systems.
Rosenhan (1973) – validity
Aim: investigate if medical professionals can reliably and accurately distinguish the “normal” from the “abnormal.”
Method: field experiment
Details: 8 participants (5 men and 3 women, with a variety of jobs) (including Rosenhan himself) were recruited to serve as pseudopatients. The mission given to the participants was to present themselves for admission to twelve psych hospitals across 5 different states. All participants followed the same instructions: call the hospital, make an appointment, and complain of hearing voices that say “empty,” “hollow,” and “thud.” Other than those symptoms, all patients acted completely normal and gave truthful information (other than concealing their real name and occupation). All patients were admitted and 7/8 were diagnosed with schizophrenia. Once inside the hospital, participants dropped their pretend symptoms and behaved completely normally. Participants had no idea how long they would be in the hospital (it was up to them to get out of there). All participants took notes on their experiences. The goal of the pseudopatients was to be released as soon as possible. Also, they flushed the meds they were given.
Findings: The length of the hospital stays ranged from 7-52 days, with an average of 19 days. The key finding was that none of the pseudopatients were detected by any of the hospital staff. When the patients left the hospital, their mental health condition was recorded as “schizophrenia in remission.” Doctors appear to not be able to accurately distinguish between “normal” and “abnormal behavior.” Interestingly, 3 of the pseudopatients reported that real patients were suspicious about the patient being mentally ill. Additionally, contact between patients and the staff was minimal and often bizarre. It seemed that the patients were not observed as “real people.”
Conclusion: the method of diagnosing people as “normal” or “abnormal” strongly lacks validity.
Evaluation:
–legally questionable lol
–ethically questionable
–self report data lacks reliability
–high ecological validity
–small sample size
–old study
Nicholls et al (2000) – reliability
Aim: investigate the inter-rater reliability of diagnostic systems (ICD-10, DSM IV, and a specific hospitals, personal diagnostic system)
Method: correlational study
Details: Two practitioners used either the DSM IV, the ICD-10, or the Great Ormond Street Hospital diagnostic system to diagnose 81 children who had come to a specialized clinic with eating problems.
Findings: Reliability was measured based on rates of agreement between the two practitioners, expressed as correlations. The level of correlation was 0.36 for the ICD, 0.64 for the DSM, and 0.88 for the GOS. While the GOS was a more specific diagnostic set (made for diagnosing children) the fact that it had the highest inter-rater correlation raises questions about the reliability of the DSM and ICD. Diagnostic systems should not be easily affected by the researcher’s interpretation.
Evaluation:
–potential ethical considerations: do no harm, informed consent, debrief.
–correlational studies are flawed by nature
—high ecological validity since these practitioners are used to diagnosing, although they might not be used to a specific method.
–control groups, increase validity.
Discuss ethical considerations in diagnosis (e.g., stigmatization)
Rosenhan – placing people in that situation can cause long-term harm
Nicholls – these diagnoses may have been inconsistent and led to these children not getting adequate treatment.
Could also discuss the ethics of labeling people as “normal” or “abnormal” when the classification systems lack validity and reliability. Long-term harm from getting the incorrect diagnosis/ no diagnosis.
Rosenhan (1973) – validity
Aim: investigate if medical professionals can reliably and accurately distinguish the “normal” from the “abnormal.”
Method: field experiment
Details: 8 participants (5 men and 3 women, with a variety of jobs) (including Rosenhan himself) were recruited to serve as pseudopatients. The mission given to the participants was to present themselves for admission to twelve psych hospitals across 5 different states. All participants followed the same instructions: call the hospital, make an appointment, and complain of hearing voices that say “empty,” “hollow,” and “thud.” Other than those symptoms, all patients acted completely normal and gave truthful information (other than concealing their real name and occupation). All patients were admitted and 7/8 were diagnosed with schizophrenia. Once inside the hospital, participants dropped their pretend symptoms and behaved completely normally. Participants had no idea how long they would be in the hospital (it was up to them to get out of there). All participants took notes on their experiences. The goal of the pseudopatients was to be released as soon as possible. Also, they flushed the meds they were given.
Findings: The length of the hospital stays ranged from 7-52 days, with an average of 19 days. The key finding was that none of the pseudopatients were detected by any of the hospital staff. When the patients left the hospital, their mental health condition was recorded as “schizophrenia in remission.” Doctors appear to not be able to accurately distinguish between “normal” and “abnormal behavior.” Interestingly, 3 of the pseudopatients reported that real patients were suspicious about the patient being mentally ill. Additionally, contact between patients and the staff was minimal and often bizarre. It seemed that the patients were not observed as “real people.”
Conclusion: the method of diagnosing people as “normal” or “abnormal” strongly lacks validity.
Evaluation:
–legally questionable lol
–ethically questionable
–self report data lacks reliability
–high ecological validity
–small sample size
–old study
Nicholls et al (2000) – reliability
Aim: investigate the inter-rater reliability of diagnostic systems (ICD-10, DSM IV, and a specific hospitals, personal diagnostic system)
Method: correlational study
Details: Two practitioners used either the DSM IV, the ICD-10, or the Great Ormond Street Hospital diagnostic system to diagnose 81 children who had come to a specialized clinic with eating problems.
Findings: Reliability was measured based on rates of agreement between the two practitioners, expressed as correlations. The level of correlation was 0.36 for the ICD, 0.64 for the DSM, and 0.88 for the GOS. While the GOS was a more specific diagnostic set (made for diagnosing children) the fact that it had the highest inter-rater correlation raises questions about the reliability of the DSM and ICD. Diagnostic systems should not be easily affected by the researcher’s interpretation.
Evaluation:
–potential ethical considerations: do no harm, informed consent, debrief.
–correlational studies are flawed by nature
—high ecological validity since these practitioners are used to diagnosing, although they might not be used to a specific method.
–control groups, increase validity.
**
Discuss the role of two clinical biases in diagnosis.
Two clinical biases: sick role bias (Rosenhan) and prestige effect (a type of confirmation bias) (Termerlin).
Sick Role Bias: when a person comes to a clinic to seek assistance, it is assumed that there is a problem and the psychiatrist needs to find out what it is. The clinical bias that assumes if someone seeks help, they need help.
Confirmation Bias: a result of schema that allows us to understand and predict a situation. However, this often results in Clinicians seeing what they want to see, to confirm or support their schema. Seeks to confirm ones prior beliefs or values.
Prestige Effect (a type of confirmation bias): when a psychiatrist is not willing to contradict the diagnosis of a clinician who has more experience.
Rosenhan (1973) - Sick role bias
Temerlin (1970) - Prestige effect
Aim: investigate the prestige effect.
Method: lab experiement
Details: clinical psychologists watched a video of an interview with a healthy individual. One group heard a respected psychologist say, “A very interesting man because he looked neurotic, but actually was quite psychotic.” Then participants selected their best-guess diagnosis from a list of 30 choices: 10 psychotic disorders, 10 neurotic disorders, and 10 miscellaneous personality types (including just “normal” or “perfectly healthy). There was also a control group that did not here this suggestion.
Findings: In the experimental group, 60% of the psychiatrists diagnosed the patient as psychotic, whereas in the control group, none of the 78 participants made this diagnosis. This is an example of confirmation bias due to the prestige effect. After hearing the respected psychologist make an informal diagnosis, the participants paid attention to the specific behavior to confirm their belief that this man was psychotic. This supports that having previous diagnosing and making that known to a clinician may influence the objectivity of the second opinion.
Evaluation:
– Deception was used but was necessary
–low ecological validity kinda
–high internal validity
–older study
–possible external factors in the decision, maybe he was psychotic (unlikely).
–only looked at a man in this study, a woman may change the results.
Discuss a biological approach to the etiology of one disorder.
Serotonin hypothesis: status that a deficiency of noadrenaline, dopamine, and serotonin lead to depression
Depression: Psychological disorder characterized by general depressed mood, apathy, and physical symptoms that lasts for more than 2 weeks
Neurogenesis: creation of new neurons
Serotonin: neurotransmitter that is thought to have a positive influence on mood, sleep, and emotion
SSRIs: Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor is a type of antidepressant drug that inhibits the reabsorption of serotonin by neurons, thus increasing the availability of serotonin in the synaptic cleft.
Caspi et al 2003
Aim
To investigate the relationship between genetic type and depression, questioning whether one genotype had a higher likelihood of getting depression from stressful situations
Methods
Quasi experiment (studying naturally occurring dependent variables), three groups of selected individuals (Caucasians from New Zealand, 26 years old) based on alleles
Details
847 Caucasians from New Zealand who were all 26 years old, separating them into 3 groups based on their alleles of the 5HTT gene: a serotonin transporter responsible for recycling serotonin from the synaptic cleft (s/s, s/l, l/l)
fill out a life history survey which resulted in the conclusion that the stressors that were experienced by the participants had no differences.
depression levels were measured using the Diagnostic Interview Schedule (17% qualified for major depression). To back the possible confounding variables, informant data was collected by a questionnaire of a selected individual from the participant.
Findings
The correlation between depression symptoms and genotype, stress events, and the interaction between the two came back stating that having a short allele increased the self-reports of depression. It also showed that reports of low-stress environments correlated with lower rates of depression no matter the person’s genotype.
supports the role that serotonin plays in human behavior (sleep, mood, hunger, and perception)
S allele associated with lower 5HTT expression and function, meaning less serotonin
Evaluation
controlled confounding variables - all participants were the same age and had a similar amount of stressful events in their lives before the study to ensure that the results would be reliable
“informant” data from a participant’s selected person to control the possible lying on the Diagnostic Interview Schedule
the sample group collected allowed for a somewhat generalizable conclusion due to the about equal numbers of males and females and the size of the sample (847 people is a decent number for a quantitative study).
the sample could also be a downfall as the group consisted of only Caucasians from New Zealand, lowering the generalizability (there is a note at the bottom of the study stating that culture does seem to affect the risk of depression based on alleles)
Malberg et al 2000
Aim
To test certain treatments to see if there would be an increase in neurogenesis in rats
Method
Lab experiment
Details
Antidepressants were injected into rats including an SSRI and a monoamine oxidase inhibitor. Some rats also received an electroconvulsive shock
Findings
All methods were successful in the treatment of depression in some of the rats and found that all treatments had increased neurogenesis in the hippocampus
Specifically, the SSRI decreased the serotonin reuptake, treating depression in the serotonin hypothesis etiology
Evaluation
lacks ecological validity, can’t be generalized to humans completely
However, we have some simple genetic makeup as rats
Discuss a sociocultural approach to the etiology of one disorder.
Depression: Psychological disorder characterized by general depressed mood, apathy, and physical symptoms that lasts for more than 2 weeks
vulnerability models: argue that when there are more risk factors in the environment than protective factors than one is likely to develop a disorder.
Brown and Harris (1978)
Aim: to investigate how depression could be linked to social factors and stressful life-events in a sample of women.
Procedure: 458 women in South London were surveyed on their daily life and depressive episodes. The researchers focused on important biographical details - that is, particular life events or particular difficulties faced by the women. These events were later rated in severity by independent researchers.
Results: 8% of all the women - that is, 37 in total - had become clinically depressed in the previous year. 33 of these women (nearly 90%) had experienced an adverse life event (e.g. loss of a loved one) or a serious difficulty (e.g. being in an abusive relationship). Only 30% of the women who did not become depressed suffered from such an adversity. Only four of the 37 women who became depressed had not experienced any adversity.
Social class was also a factor measured by the occupation of the husband> working class women with children were 4x more likely to develop depression than middle class women.
Conclusion: 3 major factors were identified that affected the development of depression
-Protective factors that found to protect against development of depression in spite of stressors > high levels of intimacy> high self esteem
-Vulnerability factors that are found increase the risk of depression: loss of mother before 11, lack of confiding relationship, more than 3 children under 14 at home and unemployment.
Chiao & Blizinsky 2010
Aim: To investigate a correlation between culture, genes and depression
Procedure: 50 000 individuals from 29 countries. Cultural values vs individualism
Frequency of allele variation of 5-HTT. Relating it all to global variation in the prevalence of affective disorders. Took general prevalence data from different studies. They have 29 “participants” because they aimed to assess the whole nation.
Results: Demonstrated that collectivistic cultures were significantly more likely to carry the short allele 5-HTT.
Other cultural dimensions (power distance, uncertainty, avoidance, masculinity-femininity, and long term / short term orientation) did not correlate with the frequency of the short allele in the population. Nations with a higher frequency of short allele carriers showed a lower prevalence of depression.
Conclusion: Demonstrated that collectivistic cultures were significantly more likely to carry the short allele 5-HTT. Other cultural dimensions (power distance, uncertainty, avoidance, masculinity-femininity, and long term / short term orientation) did not correlate with the frequency of the short allele in the population. Nations with a higher frequency of short allele carriers showed a lower prevalence of depression.
Evaluation:Statistical techniques showed that collectivistic cultural values were a mediator between population frequency of short allele individuals and decreased prevalence of depression. There is more stigma associated with mental illness in collectivistic nations due to increased cultural pressure to conform to social norms. This may lead to some individuals failing to report their symptoms or seek psychological help, distorting cross-national estimates of prevalence.
X
Discuss a cognitive approach to the etiology of one disorder.
Depression: Psychological disorder characterized by general depressed mood, apathy, and physical symptoms that lasts for more than 2 weeks
Beck’s Cognitive Triad and negative schemas: negative thoughts about self, world, and future contribute to the creation of a core set of negative beliefs about oneself (negative self-schema). Negative thinking (self-schema) leads to depression.
Negative self-schema is often created with early experiences that are deeply rooted, and may not be articulated even to oneself. These beliefs become absolute truths and are accepted as the way things are.
Negative self-schema can be maintained through a set of cognitive biases/distortions: over-generalization, (one experience determines all), selective abstraction (one negative part), and polar reasoning (good or bad).
Joiner (1999):
Aim: to determine the role of depressive and anxious thinking patterns on the development of depressive symptoms.
Method: a natural experiment on the role of exam stress in university students
Details: The sample was made of 119 American university students, all taking an abnormal psychology course. The mean age of the students was 19 years old. The stressor that the researchers would observe was mid-term examinations. The students were assessed two weeks before and two weeks after their mid-term examinations.
To assess the students, three tests were given.
The Dysfunctional Attitudes Scale [DAS] This test measures thinking patterns such as vulnerability, the need for approval, perfectionism, and the need to impress. This was taken only before the mid-term exams.
The Cognitive Checklist [CCL]. Half of the questions determine automatic thoughts linked to depression; the other half, are linked to anxiety. This test was taken both before and after the exams.
The Beck Depression Inventory [BDI] A standardized assessment to measure levels of symptoms linked to depression. This test was also taken both before and after the exams
Findings: The researchers found an increase in the scores on the BDI only in students who had higher scores on the DAS and who had failed an exam. Students who had a higher score on the DAS but did well on the exams showed no significant increase in their BDI scores. For the students who had lower scores on the DAS, even if they received low grades, they did not experience depressive reactions.
When looking at the scores for the CCL, there was a correlation between having higher scores on the depressive thinking patterns questions and the increase in the BDI scores if a student failed an exam. There was no significant correlation between the anxiety scores and an increase in BDI scores.
Those with the predisposition (increased dysfunctional attitudes), their depression scores on the BDI increase with a higher likelihood than those without dysfunctional attitudes
Evaluation:
the study was prospective- allowing the researchers to see change over time, which allows researchers to control for bidirectional ambiguity
Naturalistic study, meaning that there was limited control over extraneous variables
Although there was an increase in depressive symptoms, this is not the same as a clinical diagnosis of Major Depressive Disorder
There was a sampling bias
The study was carried out on American undergraduates who were studying psychology
The age, culture, and education of the sample may all have played a role in the results of the study
Hankin and Abramson (2001):
Aim:
Extend Becks model by explaining gender differences in the prevalence of depression.
Method:
meta analysis
Details:
Descriptive studies are reviewed, showing that the increase in females with depression over males with depression begins to emerge around age 13.
Findings:
Cognitive traid model explains the emergence of the gender difference in depression.
The elaborated causal chain posits that negative events contribute to initial elevations of general negative affect. Genetic cognitive vulnerability factors then moderate the likelihood that the initial negative effect will progress to full-blown depression.
Increases in depression can lead to more self-generated dependent negative life events and thus begin the causal chain again.
Conclusion to their extension is the occurrence of a negative event that creates negative effect (e.g. a sad or angry mood) before the thinking styles described by Beck come into play.
Their model explains how traumatic experiences like sexual abuse or separation from close relatives can contribute to the construction of negative self-schemata and provides targets for therapy
Evaluation
Possible researcher bias with meta analysis
Discuss the prevalence rate of one disorder.
Depression: Psychological disorder characterized by general depressed mood, apathy, and physical symptoms that lasts for more than 2 weeks
vulnerability models: argue that when there are more risk factors in the environment than protective factors than one is likely to develop a disorder.
Brown and Harris (1978)
Aim: to investigate how depression could be linked to social factors and stressful life-events in a sample of women.
Procedure: 458 women in South London were surveyed on their daily life and depressive episodes. The researchers focused on important biographical details - that is, particular life events or particular difficulties faced by the women. These events were later rated in severity by independent researchers.
Results: 8% of all the women - that is, 37 in total - had become clinically depressed in the previous year. 33 of these women (nearly 90%) had experienced an adverse life event (e.g. loss of a loved one) or a serious difficulty (e.g. being in an abusive relationship). Only 30% of the women who did not become depressed suffered from such an adversity. Only four of the 37 women who became depressed had not experienced any adversity.
Social class was also a factor measured by the occupation of the husband> working class women with children were 4x more likely to develop depression than middle class women.
Conclusion: 3 major factors were identified that affected the development of depression
-Protective factors that found to protect against development of depression in spite of stressors > high levels of intimacy> high self esteem
-Vulnerability factors that are found increase the risk of depression: loss of mother before 11, lack of confiding relationship, more than 3 children under 14 at home and unemployment.
Chiao & Blizinsky 2010
Aim: To investigate a correlation between culture, genes and depression
Procedure: 50 000 individuals from 29 countries. Cultural values vs individualism
Frequency of allele variation of 5-HTT. Relating it all to global variation in the prevalence of affective disorders. Took general prevalence data from different studies. They have 29 “participants” because they aimed to assess the whole nation.
Results: Demonstrated that collectivistic cultures were significantly more likely to carry the short allele 5-HTT.
Other cultural dimensions (power distance, uncertainty, avoidance, masculinity-femininity, and long term / short term orientation) did not correlate with the frequency of the short allele in the population. Nations with a higher frequency of short allele carriers showed a lower prevalence of depression.
Conclusion: Demonstrated that collectivistic cultures were significantly more likely to carry the short allele 5-HTT. Other cultural dimensions (power distance, uncertainty, avoidance, masculinity-femininity, and long term / short term orientation) did not correlate with the frequency of the short allele in the population. Nations with a higher frequency of short allele carriers showed a lower prevalence of depression.
Evaluation:Statistical techniques showed that collectivistic cultural values were a mediator between population frequency of short allele individuals and decreased prevalence of depression. There is more stigma associated with mental illness in collectivistic nations due to increased cultural pressure to conform to social norms. This may lead to some individuals failing to report their symptoms or seek psychological help, distorting cross-national estimates of prevalence.
