IB Psych 🧠

Question 1

Biological Approach

Answer 1

The biological approach to studying behavior argues that there are physiological origins of many behaviors and that humans should be analysed in terms of their biology.

Question 2

Explain one technique used to study the brain in relation to behavior with reference to one study

Answer 2

Intro: Modern day technology allows the technique of neuro-imaging to study the brain in relation to behavior in a non-invasive way. The Maguire study in the early 20th century demonstrated how cognitive processes may lead to plasticity in the hippocampus and it can be discovered through the MRI technique.

Body: MRI’s (magnetic resonance imaging) allows psychologists to look at the structure of the brain by applying a super strong magnetic field. Since the MRI causes protons to spin, different structures and tissues can be identified based on how fast the protons release energy. MRI’s neuro-imaging technique provides an indication of the brain structure without being too invasive. This was essential for the Maguire study to examine whether structural changes could be detected in the brain of people with extensive experience of spatial navigation. This determination would be based on if London Taxi drivers were somehow different as a result of their exceptional knowledge of London and many hours they spend navigating through the city. The procedure involved participants to be placed in a MRI scanner which focuses on the volume of grey matter inside the hippocampus. This was compared to a control group of non taxi drivers. The volume was measured based on the density of grey matter.
Results: The hippocampus, especially the right one, belonging to taxi drivers showed a greater volume of grey matter than the controls or non taxi drivers. Controls had more grey matter in their hippocampus than the taxi drivers did .The right hippocampus grey matter also had a positive correlation to the length of time spent as a taxi driver. This supported the theory of neuroplasticity: the ability of neural networks in the brain to change through growth and interaction with external stimuli. The only limitations were that majority of taxi drivers in London are males which makes it difficult to generalize the findings.

Conclusion: Through the use of the MRI, Maguire effectively observed the structures in the brain and found a correlation between the environmental effects on neuroplasticity, particularly around the hippocampus region which ultimately affects behavioral memory.

Question 3

Explain localization of behaviour, with reference to one study.

Answer 3

Intro: Localization is the fact that the amygdala helps us feel fear. This can be seen in SM’s case study.

Body: Localization of function refers to the fact that different parts of the brain are responsible for different functions. The human bodies’ ability to activate our fear and flight or flight responses solely relies the amygdala. When our amygdala senses a threatening stimuli, it releases stress hormones like adrenaline and cortisol. The amygdala can detect environmental threats prior to humans being aware of its presence. This rapid response to threat is a biological change that increases ones chance of survival.

Body: The role of the amygdala in emotion was studied in the 1880s on studies involving monkeys and lesioning. However, after the modernized technique, the MRI, came to exist, psychologists started to study the amygdala and fear in humans. The importance of the amygdala in the fear response was showcased in Feinstein et al’s case study. The study asseses a women named ‘‘SM’’ who had bilateral amygdala damage due to a genetic condition. She suited the role for this particular case study since its rare for people to have damage only in their amygdala because it is hidden deep within the brain. Feinstein et al study was determined to discovered the amygdala necessary to detect fear, this they did a series of tests on SM. to feel fear so they did a series of tests and gathered data on SM. For instance, SM was placed in exotic pet store with dangerous surroundings including snakes, a haunted house and scary film clips. Although SM displayed no signs of fear, she did show other emotions such as enjoyment in the haunted house and laughter from the scary film clips.

Results: The researchers concluded that the amygdala function is to perceive threats and trigger a fear response. It’s function is is important since is serves as an internal safety feature. This can be further shown by the fact that the biographical details of SM found that she found herself in many dangerous situations.

Conclusion: One example of localization of function is the amygdala’s role in fear and this can be shown in SM’s case study.

Question 4

Explain neuroplasticity, with reference to one study.

Answer 4

Intro: It was a long-standing belief that our brain development was fixed from a young age. However, animal research and modern technology used brain imaging to show how the brain can change throughout our lives.

Body: The Maguire study found correlations between driving taxis and brain development, particularly in the hippocampus, an area of the brain associated with learning and memory.
This correlation could be explained by stimulation: the neurons are connected to one another, creating neural networks as we learn new things. The brains ability to be altered during this experienced is known as neuroplasticity. To investigate the role of learning and memory on neuroplasticity in the hippocampus, the brains of London taxi drivers were compared with non-taxi drivers. Each participant was scanned using an MRI Hippocampus volume was measured using pixel counting. * resort to Maguire study as a result

Conclusion: This study demonstrated neuroplasticity in adult humans. However, the limits relied on the studies inability to determine if dendrite branching, neurogenesis or pruning has taken place in the hippocampus which would ultimately change the studies results.
These unsolved questions raises ethical concerns in humans, thus people should utilize animal studies.

Question 5

Explain the effect of one neurotransmitter on human behaviour, with reference to one study.

Answer 5

Intro: Neurotransmitters are the body’s natural chemical messenger which transmits information between neurons. A neurotransmitter called serotonin relates to the humans aggressive and depressive behaviors. One example of how the neurotransmitter serotonin affects behavior was seen in the Kasamatsu and Hirai study.

Body: Serotonin regulates the body because of its ability to control bodily processes. The level of serotonin in ones body determines their emotions; the average level of serotonin prevents the presence of negative emotions while low levels can trigger negative emotions such as depression and aggression. The Kasamatsu and Hiri study used uses the effect of sensory deprivation: the lack of sensory stimulation, to see how serotonin affects behavior. They carried out this study in Japan with Buddhist monks who were forced to be in cold weather and avoid drinking, eating and talking. Considering how brutal this sounds, psychologists hoped to trigger negative emotions. About two days later, the men started hallucinating that their ancestors were present. Researcher took a blood sample and notes of the hallucinations.

Conclusion: The results of the study showed that the serotonin levels in the monks had increased. These negative emotions were triggered by the hypothalamus in the brain, resulting in the monks’ hallucinations. Sensory deprivation triggers a release of serotonin, which alters the way that monks see and behave in the world.

Question 6

Explain one ethical consideration in one study of the brain and behaviour

Answer 6

Intro: Anonymity is an ethical consideration in that is relevant to understanding the impact of brain on human behavior. Anonymity importance is exemplified in the HM case study conducted by Milner.

Body: Confidential data that cannot be traced back to participants is known as anonymity. Anonymity gives the subjects the right to remain anonymous during the experiment. The study focuses on HM’s cyclist accident when he was a child and suffered from a serious brain injury. Following his operation, he was diagnosed with retrograde ameneisa which is a loss of memory for information acquired prior to the onset of amnesia. His condition prevented him from recognizing faces of individuals he saw on a regular basis. Since HM was such an unusual case, many wanted to study him and thus his anonymity could never be truly guaranteed.

Question 7

Explain the use of one research method in one study of the brain and behaviour

Answer 7

Intro: Quasi experiment research is often used to study both the brain and its behaviors. In the HM study, conducted by Milner, the quasi method allows for a depth explanation for differences in brain activity

Body: Quasi-experimental research resembles experimental research, but differs because it’s not exactly true experimental research. Although the independent variable is manipulated, participants are not randomly assigned to conditions or orders of conditions. Quasi-experiments are mainly conducted in field settings in which random assignment is difficult or impossible. They are often conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of a treatment, particularly a type of psychotherapy or an educational intervention. In this circumstance, psycholigsts wanted to evaluate the brain of a patient dealing with a severe and rare case of retrograde ameneisa.

Conclusion: In Biological Analysis Research, testing is performed on individuals with abnormalities. The investigations results determine the make up of people without such abnormalities. Once someone is willing to be investigated, psychologists take this time to conduct exhaustive research in order to gain as much knowledge as possible. Quasi experiments are used to investigate those who it would be unethical to purposefully manipulate.

Question 8

Explain the use of one research method in one study of the brain and behaviour

Answer 8

Intro: Quasi experiment research is often used to study both the brain and its behaviors. In the HM study, conducted by Milner, the quasi method allows for a depth explanation for differences in brain activity

Body: Quasi-experimental research resembles experimental research, but differs because it’s not exactly true experimental research. Although the independent variable is manipulated, participants are not randomly assigned to conditions or orders of conditions. Quasi-experiments are mainly conducted in field settings in which random assignment is difficult or impossible. They are often conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of a treatment, particularly a type of psychotherapy or an educational intervention. In this circumstance, psychologists wanted to evaluate the brain of a patient dealing with a severe and rare case of retrograde ameneisa.

Conclusion: In Biological Analysis Research, testing is performed on individuals with abnormalities. The investigations results determine the make up of people without such abnormalities. Once someone is willing to be investigated, psychologists take this time to conduct exhaustive research in order to gain as much knowledge as possible. Quasi experiments are used to investigate those who it would be unethical to purposefully manipulate.

Question 9

Explain the role of one agonist with reference to one study.

Answer 9

Intro: One agonist is serotonin, which is a naturally occurring agonist of 5HT receptors. The effects of this on behavior on the brain can be shown in Passamonti et al.’s study.

Body: An agonist is a chemical messenger that binds to the receptor sites of neurons and activates them to create a response. Some drugs act as agonists of specific neurotransmitters. The connection between serotonin and behavior can be explained using Passamonti’s study whose aim was determined to see the effect of reduced serotonin on the prefrontal cortex when exposed to threat. Participants consumed a placebo drink or one lacking tryptophan which reduced serotonin levels. Participants were placed in an MRI machine and were exposed to faces with various different emotions. Participants who drank the serotonin drink had reduced function in their PFC when they were perceiving images of angry faces while in the MRI. Results showed that reduced serotonin disrupted the neural network communication between the amygdala and the PFC when viewing angry faces. The reduced function in the PFC when exposed to angry faces explains serotonin’s link with aggression; people can’t limit their natural and impulsive reactions to threats because serotonin controls the part of the brain that helps us to stop acting impulsively and they might react to threat violently.

Conclusion: If serotonin’s activity as an agonist on 5HT receptors is reduced, it can affect the transmission in important parts of the brain like the PFC and amygdala which would ultimately affect natural human behaviors.

Question 10

Explain the formation of neural networks with the use of one study

Answer 10

The process by which neural networks are formed is called neuroplasticity. When a neuron is stimulated, an electrical charge travels down the axon. Neural networks are created when a neuron or set of neurons are repeatedly stimulated. When the neuron firing is repeated by potentiation, results in gene expression causes the neurons to sprout new dendrites known as dendritic branching. This increases the number of synapses available for the behaviour. The branching of neurons in the brain is called grey matter derives from the stimulation in the environment is seen in the Maguire study.

Maguire carried out a study to see if neuroplasticity would be seen in the brain of London taxi drivers due to the amount of time that they had been driving the streets of London. The hypothesis was that since they were required to pass a test called “the knowledge” which required them to memorize the location of key places and routes in the city and they spent a lot of time driving around the streets of London, repeated use of the brain for spatial memory would result in neuroplasticity and a denser hippocampus.

The taxi drivers were compared to the non taxi driving subjects. An MRI was used to detect changes in the structure of the brain as a result of their experience. The results showed that the taxi drivers had larger posterior hippocampus compared to the controls and that the controls had larger anterior hippocampus compared to the taxi drivers. There was also a positive correlation between the years of the participants had been as taxi drivers and the size of the posterior hippocampus, but a negative correlation existed in the size of the anterior hippocampus.

Maguire argued that this demonstrates the plasticity of the hippocampus in response to environmental demands and that the posterior hippocampus stores a spatial representation of the environment and that in the London taxi drivers the volume of the posterior hippocampus expanded because of their high reliance on navigation skills and spatial memories. By repeatedly firing the neurons required to remember the spatial layout of the city of London, the number of synapses was increased, creating a greater neural network.

Question 11

Explain neural pruning with reference to one study.

Answer 11

Neural pruning refers to the process by which neurons and synaptic connections that are not frequently used are eliminated in order to increase efficiency of neural transmissions that are still functioning. Neural pruning results from the lack of long term potentiation in the brain which is the process by which synapses are strengthened resulting to dendritic arborization which is an increase in neural density. Both neural pruning and dendritic arborization result to brain neuroplasticity, which is the ability of the brain to change its structure as the individual interacts with their environment.

2) Neural pruning is best illustrated by Draganski’s study which involved participants were non - jugglers at the start of the
study and Draganski took a base MRI of their grey matter and brain structure. He then divided them into groups: a control and an experimental. The experimental group was taught a juggling routine and were asked to practice this routine and notify the researcher after they had mastered it. After mastering the routine, another MRI scan was taken of all the participants.
To analyse the scans, the researchers used voxel - based morphometry and found that the amount of grey matter in the mid - temporal area in both brain hemispheres of the jugglers was significantly greater than the brains of non - jugglers. This area is associated with visual memory, indicating that juggling relies on visual memory. This indiciates that dendritic arborization occurred in the mid temporal area while jugglers were practing their routine.
The participants were then asked to stop juggling and after many months, another MRI scan was taken. The researchers observed that the amount of grey matter in the experimental group had decreased but there was no change over time in the amount of grey matter observed in the control group. This shows that after the jugglers stopped practicing their routine, the synaptic connections that had taken place in their mid - temporal area were eliminated as they were not used anymore and neural pruning had occurred.

Question 12

Explain the role of one antagonist with reference to one study.

Answer 12

An antagonist is a drug or chemical that binds to a receptor on a neuron and suppresses the agonist from attaching to the receptor and causing a response. A receptor is a site on the neuron that receives and reads chemical signals. One antagonist is scopolamine that inhibits the acetylcholine from attaching to the receptor which would cause new memories to form and short term memories to turn into long term ones.

Troster and Beatty study investigates the role of acetylcholine in the formation and retrieval of memory. 13 male particiapnts were tested for both physical and mental health. They were also informed of the potential side effects of scopolamine and reminded throughout the study that they could withdraw whenever they felt like. All the participants underwent the three conditions: a placebo group who were injected with saline solution or the other groups which contained other levels of scopolamine.

Many free recall tests where conducted to test the particpants’ ability to recall the objectives within each test. The concluding results showed that scopolamine played a role in inhibiting the formation of new memories but did not have a significant effect on the retrieval of long term memory. This showed that acetylcholine played a role in the encoding of both semantic and spatial memory.

Question 13

Explain the effect of one hormone on human behaviour with reference to one study.

Answer 13

Chemical messengers released from glands throughout the body are implicated in human behavior. The pituitary gland in the brain manages hormone levels. One hormone maintained by the pituitary gland is oxytocin which ia hormone involved in behavior associated with maternal behavior and emotional recognition. The maternal effects of oxytocin can be determined through physical signs such as intense labor contraction and increase milk production. Additionally, oxycotin is thought to increase sociability and ability to empathize. The Kirkpatrick study investigates the immediate effects of MDMA (a recreational drug which increases empathy and desire for interpersonal closeness through the release of oxytocin) and oxytocin.Participants were given MDMA and oxytocin nasally, and a control group received a placebo. Their ability for emotional recognition (recognition of sad facial expressions) and sociability (desire for interpersonal closeness) was measured. The study found that the groups that received MDMA and oxytocin had elevated feelings of sociability and an augmented awareness of sad facial expressions. This suggests that in both situations, oxytocin was responsible for an increase in sociability and a positive perception of others.

Conclusion: The measurement of hormones is objective attributing to the strength of research since it means that the data is reliable. However, using hormones to explain the complexity of human behaviour, especially social behaviour, can be seen as a reductionist approach as it does not consider possible environmental, social and cognitive factors.

Question 14

Explain one effect of one potential pheromone in human behavior with reference to one study

Answer 14

Intro: One study that demonstrates the role of pheromones in human behavior is Zhou et al (2014).

Body: Pheromones are chemical substances produced and released into the environment by an animal affecting the behavior or physiology of others of its own species. In Zhou et al (2014) study, homosexual and heterosexual males and female were asked to identify a non gendered stick figure, when being exposed to high level of pheromones, specifically androstadienone (male semen and sweat) and estratetraenol (female urine). Androstadienone - biased heterosexual females and homosexual males, toward perceiving the walkers as more masculine. Estratetraenol -biases heterosexual males and homosexual women toward perceiving the walkers as more feminine –> nfluence communication of gender information in a sex-specific manner.

Conclusion: This study conducted by Zhou et al (2014) have showed that pheromones, Androstandienone and estratetraenol, influence communication of gender information in a sex-specific manner, perception of masculinity and feministic traits.

Question 15

Explain the use of one research method in one study of hormones or pheromones.

Answer 15

One research method used to evaluate the effect of hormones or pheromones on human behavior is the correlation study. The MAGUIRE TAXI CAB (1999) STUDY reflects this type of research method; Correlation studies can be used in the study of hormones or pheromones and behaviour by allowing researchers to compare results from a large or small number of participants in a more controlled environment. Hormone and pheromones are neurotransmitters that can impact biological functions and behaviour.

Question 16

Explain one ethical consideration in one study of hormones or pheromones.

Answer 16

Ethical considerations are a set of rules that guide the science community on how to carry out an experiment or study mostly in order to minimize harm. One important ethical consideration is that participants should have a right to withdraw from a study at any point during the study.

The aim of McGaugh and Cahill’s study was to study the role of emotion on the creation of memories. Particpants were divided into two testing groups: one heard a rather boring, monotone story and the other group heard about an intense, engaging accident.

Two weeks after participating in the experiment, the participants were asked to come back and their memory for specific details of the story were tested. The test was a recognition task that consisted of a series of questions about the slides with three options for them to choose from.

In the original version of the experiment, the researchers found that the participants who had heard the more emotionally arousing story demonstrated better recall of specific details of the story. They could also recall more details from the slides. In the follow-up study, they found that those that had received the beta-blocker did no better than the group that had heard the “mundane” story. This study does not discuss whether the participants were protected from undue stress and harm. We are not told whether any of the participants suffering from psychological trauma by watching the traumatic slide or whether the propranolol causes any side effects that the participants were made aware of.

Question 17

Explain the role of one gene in one behaviour with reference to one study.

Answer 17

One way that genetic inheritance can impact human behavior is by predisposing certain people to depression. CASPI ET AL is one study that displays how genetics affects human behavior in this way; The 5-HTT gene is suggested to be the base for depression and susceptibility to depression. Studies show that those with this gene are more likely to be depressed, thus displaying a link between genetics and human behaviour.

Question 18

Explain how excitatory or inhibitory synapses play a role in one behaviour, making use of one study.

Answer 18

One inhibitory synapses that can impact human behavior involves serotonin. PASSMONTI ET AL displays how low levels of serotonin play a role in increasing aggressive behavior; An inhibitory synapse refers to a neurotransmitter that can prevent or limit a function. For example, serotonin can inhibit logical thinking and proper emotional responses, which increases impulsivity and thus aggression.

Question 19

Explain how genetic similarities help psychologists in the study of genes and behaviour with reference to one study.

Answer 19

Genetic similarity is referred to as relatedness and it is assumed the greater the genetic similarities between two individuals or a group of individuals the higher the degree of relatedness.
STUDY 1: KEDLER et al. (2006)
IM: To investigate the heritability of depression

METHOD: Correlation (interviews; twin study)

Participants: 42000 twins from Sweden’s twin registry

Procedure: The participants were interviewed and assessed for major depressive disorder in accordance with DSM-IV

Results
The researchers estimated from the concordance rates in mono- and dizogotic twins that the heritability of depression is roughly 38% - The rate was higher in females. (MZ male - 31%: MZ female - 44%: DZ Males - 11% DZ females - 16%)

Conclusions
Depression is somewhat heritable, but environment and stress play at least a big a role (predisposition and stress: diathesis stress theory)

Question 20

Explain one evolutionary explanation of behaviour with reference to one study.

Answer 20

One evolutionary explanation of human behavior indicates how fear developed in humans. Specifically, AHS ET AL displays how amygdala activation increases in response to fearful stimuli; Over time, the amygdala, a part of the brain responsible for emotional responses, will adapt to increased stimuli and fear. As time went on and animals were consistently presented with new threats, they evolved to have more responsive amygdalas that would in turn protect them.

Question 21

Explain one ethical consideration in one study of genes and behaviour.

Answer 21

The biological level of analysis of psychology states that all cognitions, emotions and behaviours have a physiological basis. All psychological research needs to follow ethical guidelines. Ethics must be considered to ensure participants (humans and animals) are not harmed and that research conducted is ethically valid. Researchers should always conduct research in an ethical manner and studies should be critically evaluated for ethical issues.
In any study, the participants should be protected from any physical and mental harm and distress (humiliation, stress, injury etc.). Also participants should not be forced to reveal personal information. The researchers must inform all the participants about the nature of their research and an informed consent form must be signed. Sometimes it is not possible to give full information about research because it can lead to participant bias: knowing the true aims of a study may affect participants’ behaviour and thus the results of a study. Also it is considered acceptable not to give full informed consent if no harm is expected. Researchers should not delude their participants unless revealing full information will affect the validity of their work (participant bias) and slight deception is allowed if the deception does not cause any distress to the participant. In addition, participants should be informed of their right to withdraw their participation and data at any time in the study (even at the end) without penalty and stress. In addition, the findings of the research should be made available to participants as soon as possible

Question 22

Explain the use of one research method in one study of genes and behaviour.

Answer 22

Behavioural genetics look into how behavior is an interaction of genetic inheritance and environmental factors. Different methods are used to investigate how biological factors such as genes could influence behaviour. One example is correlational studies, meaning when when data is collected to show a relationship between 2 variables. Uses of correlational studies involve heritability and behaviour. It is not possible or ethical to manipulate human genes in an experimental setting. Correlation allows direct comparison between genetic and environmental influences of behaviour in adoption studies. The Plomin et al studies the the relationship between genetic inheritance, environment and intelligence. The researchers conducted a meta-analysis of IQ tests and cognitive ability tests. Correlations between adoptive parents and adopted children’s IQ are high when the children are young. Shared family environment may account for IQ variations in adopted children, the environment has little effect after adolescence, and that genetic factors contribute to measures of intelligence later in lifespan. Twin studies compare these differences to draw conclusions about heritability (the extent to which variations in behaviour between individuals can be attributed to genetic factors).

Question 23

Explain the use of kinship studies or twin studies in the study of inheritance of behaviour, making use of one study.

Answer 23

Twin studies can be used to explain how genetic inheritance impact human behavior. Specifically, BOUCHARD or the MINNESOTA TWIN STUDY displays how genetic inheritance impacts intelligence; Twin studies can explain how genetic inheritance impacts human behavior. A twin study refers to a study where researchers compare the behavioral traits of DZ (fraternal) and MZ (identical) twins to analyze the impact of genetics and environment. Genetic inheritance is self-explanatory, and refers to genetics playing a role in behavior. Studies display that genetics play a role in behavior and even intelligence, especially with twins who share similar sets of DNA, and oftentimes, similar environments.

Question 24

Cognitive Approach

Answer 24

The cognitive approach in psychology focuses on how people understand, take in, organise and use information

Question 25

Explain one model of memory with reference to one study.

Answer 25

One model of memory is the “Multi-Store Model.” This model separates memory into sensory, short-term and long-term memory. The model argues we are bombarded by sensory stimuli. When we pay attention to the stimuli, they pass through sensory memory and into short-term memory. Information is held until either other information displaces it or, if we rehearse it, it is moved to long-term memory. When we remember something, information is moved from long-term memory back into short-term memory so that it can be used.

Glanzer and Cunitz:
-Researchers read list of 15 words to participants and asked them to recall the words
-Participants randomly allocated to one of three conditions: recall the words immediately, with a 10-second delay, or with a 30-second delay
-To prevent participants from rehearsing during delay, participants were given filler task: to count backwards from 100

(Results)
-When no delay, participants remembered the first few words and last few words ——> indicating that words earlier on the list were more likely to be rehearsed and moved to LTM (primacy effect) and words at the end of the list were still in STM (recency effect)

-When given filler task during delay, participants only remembered the first few words —–> indicating that words earlier on the list were rehearsed and moved to LTM (primacy effect), but filler task displaced information in STM (no more recency effect)

(Conclusion)
Multi-store model is correct
-showing that long-term & short-term memory stored in different places, and STM may be displaced

Question 26

Explain schema theory with reference to one study.

Answer 26

A schema is a mental representation that helps us to understand and predict the world that we live in. It is the way we organize categories of information and the relationships among them. Schema influences attention and learning, suggesting that learning is a combination of accommodation (when we change schema based on new information) and assimilation (when we add change information to fit existing schema). We tend to notice things that are in line with our schema and there is the possibility that we forget or distort memories of things that are not in line with our schema.

Brewer & Treyens:
-Participants waited one at a time in an office. The room had both “schema congruent” items - that is, things that are normally in an office - and “schema incongruent items” - things that would not usually be seen in an office. There were also some things that are typically in an office that were not there.
-Participants were called in and asked to recall as many items as they could recall from the office.

(Results)
-Participants remembered items that they expected to see in an office (things that matched their schema of an office), and made errors by adding items that were congruent to their schema of an office setting, but were not actually there
-Things that did not match their schema were not remembered

(Conclusion)
This shows how our schemas - like an office schema - help us to identify and understand an office space and predict what we will find in it.

Question 27

Explain one model of thinking and decision making with reference to one study.

Answer 27

One theory of thinking and decision-making is the Dual Processing Model: Two types of thinking to handle information and complex tasks - system 1 and system 2 thinking.

System 1 thinking: process is fast, automatic and based on previous experience. As we practice something, it moves from requiring system 2 thinking to system 1 thinking (e.g. tying shoelaces). However, we prefer to use system 1 thinking as we are cognitive misers. System 1 thinking uses mental shortcuts called heuristics.

System 2 thinking is slower, more deliberate and effortful, but also less prone to mistakes. Used in unfamiliar situations when our system 1 thinking is not sufficient.

Stroop:
(Procedure)
-Participants were first given a congruent colour and word list (in which the colours match the word), and asked to read the list as quickly as possible
-Participants were then given an incongruent colour and word list (in which the colours did not match the word), and asked to read the colour of the word (e.g. the word “blue” in red colour would be identified as “red”).

(Results)
-In the congruent colour word list, the process of reading the words aloud was automatic, and thus activated System 1 thinking.
-In the incongruent colour word list, the mismatched words and colours caused cognitive interference, and thus was not an automatic process. The natural response would be say the word of the colour, but not identifying the colour - Thus causing participants to struggle in completing the task. This activates System 2 thinking, requiring participants to be more deliberate and put more effort into reading the list.

(Conclusion)
The study showed that this model of thinking does indeed have two distinctly different systems, as System 1 thinking did not prove sufficient enough for a more complex task (as identifying colours is not an automatic task) thus requiring System 2 thinking.

Question 28

Explain one ethical consideration in one study of one cognitive process.

Answer 28

One ethical consideration is the use of deception. Deception is when a participant is not made fully aware of the purpose of a study or is intentionally misinformed.

Deception is often used by researchers to hide the true aim of an experiment.

If participants knew the true aim of the experiment, it may cause them to demonstrate demand characteristics - either to give information they think researchers would want or to behave in ways that make themselves look at their best, something known as the social desirability effect.

Deception is problematic because it undermines the concept of “informed consent.” violating trust between a researcher and a participant. It may increase the chances that a participant would withdraw from the experiment. Therefore, debriefing is an important part of any experiment with deception. It is important that the deception be justified and that the participant be allowed to withdraw data. In addition, debriefing is a chance for the researcher to make sure that there was not harm done as a result of the deception.

Loftus’s Lost in the Mall Study:
(Procedure)
-The aim of the study was to see if participants would “create memories” of a biographical event that never happened to them. Participants were given short stories describing childhood events, all supposedly provided by family members, and asked them to try to recall them. One of the stories, describing a time when the participant was lost in a mall as a child, was false.

(Results)
-a quarter of the participants said that they remembered this event even though it never actually occurred. They often described the event in great detail. Loftus concluded that being asked to recall something that didn’t happen, but that they thought their parents said happened, can lead to the creation of false memories.

(Conclusion)
Upon revealing the deception, participants may have felt like they looked foolish. However, Loftus could not do a study on false memory by first revealing the actual aim of the study. Although the deception was justified, the experiment is still problematic from an ethical standpoint.

Question 29

Explain the use of one research method in one study of one cognitive process.

Answer 29

One research method used at the cognitive approach is a true experiment. Used to establish a cause and effect relationship between two or more variables. In a true experiment, the research manipulates an independent variable and measures its effect on a dependent variable while all other variables are held constant. Participants are randomly allocated to conditions and the environment in which the study is done is controlled to make sure that extraneous/confounding variables do not have an effect on the results of the study.

Loftus & Palmer:
(Procedure)
-Participants watched a movie in which two cars hit one another, and then asked how fast the car was going when the accident occurred
-For some participants the question ended with “when the two cars smashed into each other”, for other participants, the word smash was replaced with bumped, hit, collided, or contacted.
-The IV was the intensity of the verb in the question
-The DV was the speed the participants estimated.
-The researchers used an independent samples design, so the participants experienced only one condition. Otherwise, they would not have been able to carry out the experiment because the participants would have figured out the actual goal of the study. Therefore, deception is sometimes used in experiments to avoid the participants demonstrating demand characteristics, where they do what they think that the researcher wants them to do. As part of the experiment, when the task is completed, the researcher must debrief the participant and reveal any deception.

(Results)
The results of the experiment showed that the stronger the intensity of the verb, the higher the estimate of the speed of the car when the accident happened. As the data was quantitative, statistics could be calculated to see if the results were significant or due to chance. The results showed that the wording of the question had a direct cause and effect relationship on the estimation of speed made by participants.

Question 30

Explain the Working Memory Model with reference to one study.

Answer 30

Baddeley and Hitch (1974) — The Working Memory Model

Visuospatial sketchpad: holds visual and spatial information.
Phonological loop: Holds auditory information. Composed of two sub-parts: “The inner ear”: Holds sound in a passive manner
Articulatory rehearsal component: An inner voice rewording auditory information, thus increasing their duration in memory.
Central executive: responsible for the allocation of focus between the visuospatial sketchpad and the phonological loop. Episodic buffer: Integrates information from the visuospatial sketchpad and the phonological loop and links it to LTM.

Landry and Bartling:
(Aim)
To investigate if articulatory suppression would influence recall of a written list of phonologically dissimilar letters in serial recall as the Working Memory Model and the concept of Phonological loop suggests.

(Procedure)
Participants divided into 2 groups, using independent samples design for the experiment. In the experimental group, participants saw a list of letters they had to recall while saying the numbers 1 and 2 repeatedly — an articulatory suppression task. The control group did the same without the articulatory suppression task. Participants were then asked to recall the letters they saw from the list.

(Results)
The results revealed that the control group recalled the letters better than the experimental group.

(Conclusion)
The results support the Working Memory Model, and specifically its phonological loop concept. Articulatory suppression prevents rehearsal in the phonological loop because of overload. As the Articulatory rehearsal component is unable to transform visual speech information to sounds due to said overload and as attention is constantly allocated toward the phonological loop by the Central Executive to repeat 1 and 2, only the visuospatial sketchpad is relied on with limited focus, which disallows memorization.

Question 31

Explain the Multi-Store Model with reference to one study.

Answer 31

The Multi-Store Model separates memory into sensory, short-term and long-term memory. The model argues we are bombarded by sensory stimuli. When we pay attention to the stimuli, they pass through sensory memory and into short-term memory. Information is held until either other information displaces it or, if we rehearse it, it is moved to long-term memory. When we remember something, information is moved from long-term memory back into short-term memory so that it can be used.

Glanzer and Cunitz:
(Methodology)
-Researchers read a list of 15 words to participants and asked them to recall the words
-Participants randomly allocated to one of three conditions: recall the words immediately, with a 10-second delay, or with a 30-second delay
-To prevent participants from rehearsing during delay, participants were given filler task: to count backwards from 100

(Results)
-When no delay, participants remembered the first few words and last few words ——> indicating that words earlier on the list were more likely to be rehearsed and moved to LTM (primacy effect) and words at the end of the list were still in STM (recency effect)

-When given filler task during delay, participants only remembered the first few words —–> indicating that words earlier on the list were rehearsed and moved to LTM (primacy effect), but filler task displaced information in STM (no more recency effect)

(Conclusion)
Multi-store model is correct
-showing that long-term & short-term memory stored in different places, and STM may be displaced

Question 32

Explain reconstructive memory with reference to one study.

Answer 32

Information processing in schema theory
Top-down: Prior schema acting as a filter to process information
Bottom-up: Completely new information. No prior schema exists to filter information.
Organize knowledge, assist recall, guide attention + behavior, make predictions, make sense of current experiences, simplify reality, set expectations, create perceptions, stereotypes and gender roles
Can be responsible for biases as well as prejudices.
Reconstructive memory from prior schema affecting memory recall - inconsistencies in narratives filled up by schema

Bartlett (1932) “The War of the Ghosts”
Aim: To investigate if schema affects memory, and the extent to which memory is reconstructive.
(Methodology)
Procedure: British participants told a story and asked to reproduce it after a short time and repeatedly over a period of months or years (serial reproduction). The story was an unfamiliar Native American story called “The War of the Ghosts”.
(Results)
Participants remembered the main idea of the story but changed unfamiliar elements more familiar to their own cultural expectations. The story remained a coherent whole although it was changed. It became noticeably shorter for each reproduction.
(Conclusion)
Memory is reconstructive, and not copies of experience. Remembering is an active process

Question 33

Explain one bias in thinking and decision making with reference to one study.

Answer 33

A bias in thinking and decision making is the availability heuristic. Availability heuristic refers to people’s tendency to base predictions and generalisations about a population on the ease with which they can think of an example to support or disprove a statement.

Kahneman and Tversky:
(Aim)
Investigate how the availability heuristic affects judgment

(Procedure)
Participants were given several letters of the alphabet and asked if these letters appear more frequently in the 1st or the 3rd position of a word

(Results)
About two-thirds of participants overestimated the number of words that began with the given letter (“K” for example). There was a bias favouring the 1st position.

The results of this study are likely due to the availability heuristic. It is much easier to think of words that begin with the letter K (such as kangaroo, kitchen, kidnap) than words that have K as the third letter (such as acknowledge, ask). Because participants find it easier to recall words that begin with K, they incorrectly assume that there are more such words

(Conclusion)
availability heuristic explains why people are often particularly fearful of shocking events such as terrorist attacks, plane rashes, serial killers, and so forth. these events tend to be widely reported in the media, leading people to overestimate their occurrence because of the ease of recalling instances of the event

Question 34

Explain one study of the influence of emotion on one cognitive process.

Answer 34

One theory about how emotion may affect one cognitive process is Flashbulb Memory Theory by Brown & Kulik (1977). Brown & Kulik believed that strong emotional experiences led to memories that are detailed, accurate, vivid, and resistant to forgetting. They argued that there were two key components to the creation of a flashbulb memory. First, there is the element of surprise. The researchers proposed the “special mechanism” hypothesis that suggested that there were biological factors that led to the creation of these memories, although they did not know what those mechanisms were. Secondly, the researchers argued that the event had to have “personal meaning” for the person. If there was the combination of a strong emotional response based on surprise and personal meaning, then the result is a flashbulb memory.

Researchers now know that when adrenaline reaches the brain it activates the amygdala in the limbic system to send a message that something important or dangerous has happened. The amygdala plays a key role in creating emotional memories

McGaugh & Cahill:
(Aim)
to study the role of emotional arousal on memory.

(Procedure)
The participants were divided into two groups. Each group saw 12 slides and heard a different story.

Condition 1: participant heard a boring story about a woman and her son who paid a visit to the son’s father in a hospital where they watched the staff in a disaster preparation drill.

Condition 2: the participant heard a story where the boy was involved in a car accident where his feet were severed. He was quickly brought to the hospital where the surgeons reattached the injured limbs. Then he stayed in the hospital for a few weeks and then went home with his mother.

Condition 3: A third group heard the same story as the second group, but they were given beta-blockers. Beta-blockers block the receptor sites for adrenaline in the amygdala. Two weeks later the participants were asked to come back and have their memory tested. Two weeks later the participants were asked to come back and have their memory tested.

(Conclusion)
The researchers found that the participants who had heard the more emotional story had a better recall of specific details of the story. They could also recall more details from the slides. However, if they heard the emotional story and had received beta-blockers, they had no better recall than the first group that did not hear the emotional story. This may be evidence to support Brown & Kulik’s original theory of the “special mechanism”. It appears that emotion may have an effect on the accuracy of one’s memories.

Question 35

Explain the use of one research method in one study of the reliability of one cognitive process.

Answer 35

Reliability of one cognitive process: The theory of reconstructive memory

The theory of reconstructive memory is that when memory is unreliable, people come up with reasonable explanations to fill up the blanks.

Reconstructive memory: memory is based on schema (schema theory)

Memory is an active process

confabulation: schema helps to fill in gaps in memory

Bartlett “The War of the Ghosts”
(Aim)
To investigate if schema affects memory, and the extent to which memory is reconstructive.

(Procedure)
British participants told a story and asked to reproduce it after a short time and repeatedly over a period of months or years (serial reproduction). The story was an unfamiliar Native American story called “The War of the Ghosts”.

(Results)
Participants remembered the main idea of the story but changed unfamiliar elements more familiar to their own cultural expectations. The story remained a coherent whole although it was changed. It became noticeably shorter for each reproduction.

(Conclusion)
Bartlett’s study shows that experiment is an applicable research method to illustrate the theory of reconstructive memory. Experiments have high internal validity and therefore is able to showcase clearly the correlation between IV and DV, which may support the theory.

Question 36

Explain one ethical consideration in one study of the reliability of cognitive processes.

Answer 36

One ethical consideration in one study of effect of emotion on cognition is Protection from undue harm or stress. Said ethical consideration maintains that researchers must not leave the participants with prolonged damage, mentally and physically. Such theories on effect of emotion on cognition as flashbulb memories illustrate how emotions induce vivid memories to be formed. However, mental harm may be unwittingly caused as said memories can conjure up emotional pain if aforementioned emotions were impactful events. Such emotional pain can lead to stress, and therefore, protection from undue stress or harm must be considered.

Brown and Kulik - determinants of flashbulb memories

(Aim)
To investigate the determinants of flashbulb memories.

(Procedure)
Questionnaire around 10 novel events. Element of Quasi - experiment - difference between white and black Americans were observed.
40 black and white Americans (40 and 40), aged 20 - 60. Questionnaire, asked to describe, rate personal consequentiality and the frequency of rehearsals.

(Results)
Black participants more likely to vividly remember civil rights leaders such as Malcom X or MLK.

(Conclusion)
Arguably, the event that the study asked participants to recall – the death of MLK or Malcom X, for instance, was emotionally impactful and thus became a flashbulb memory for the participants. Recalling such memories may potentially cause mental pain as strong emotions will be experienced. The study does not suggest that participants received adequate support after their study. Therefore, protection from undue stress or harm may be a limitation in ethical consideration for this particular study.

Question 37

Explain one ethical consideration in one study of the effect of emotion on cognition.

Answer 37

Quasi experiments:
One research method used to investigate the effet of emotion on cognition are quasi-experiments.

Unlike in experiments where participants are randomly allocated to conditions to test the causal relationship between the IV and DV, in Quasi-experiments, participants are not randomly allocated to conditions. Pre-existing conditions are analyzed to identify the effect on DV. Quasi and natural experiments do not show direct causation but can imply a causal relationship between IV and DV. It is difficult, however, to control the DV as they are pre-conditions given.

Brown and Kulik
(Aim)
To investigate the determinants of flashbulb memories.

(Method)
Questionnaire around 10 novel events. Element of Quasi - experiment - difference between white and black Americans were observed.

(Procedure)
Questionnaire, asked to describe, rate personal consequentiality and the frequency of rehearsals.

(Results)
Black participants more likely to vividly remember civil rights leaders such as Malcom X or MLK. Conclusion: Rehearsal and personal consequentiality are determinants of flashbulb memory.

(Conclusion)
The flashbulb memory participants had as a pre-condition were a DV tested in the quasi-experiment. Through the survey, the researchers were able to imply a causal relationship between the participants’ intensity of emotions (IV) and how well they recalled the memory.

Question 38

Sociocultural Approach

Answer 38

Examines a person’s experiences, influences and culture help shape why they act the way they do.

Question 39

Explain Social Identity Theory with reference to one study

Answer 39

Social Identity Theory is based on the assumption that we have both an individual and a social self. Social identity theory argues that one’s self-esteem comes from their membership of social groups.

There are three steps to the Social Identity Theory:
-Categorisation: in which an individual considers himself a member of a group
-Social identification when the person conforms to the behaviours and values of the group.
-Achieving self-esteem by comparison with members of the out-group. By seeing the traits of one’s own group as positive and the out-group as inferior, this raises a sense of self-esteem.

Abrams et al. Abrams:
(Aim)
To determine if in-group identity would affect one’s willingness to conform to a group

(Procedure)
-Participants took part in the Asch paradigm
-In this test, there is a group of confederates and one naive participant. The group is shown a line and then asked to match it with the line of the same length in a set of three lines. In half of the trials, the confederates gave the correct answer; in half they did not.
-one group of naive participants was told that the other participants were “fellow psychology students from the university.” In the other condition, they were told that they were “ancient history students from the competitor university.” When they thought it was their in-group

(Results)
-When they thought it was their in-group, participants conformed almost 50% of the time to the incorrect answer; when they thought it was their out-group, they conformed only 5% of the time.

(Conclusion)
When a participant’s social identity was revealed, conformity increased in order to be accepted by one’s in-group and to maintain self-esteem, but this did not happen when the participant believed that he was with an out-group.

One type of conformity is normative social influence where the need to belong influences the likelihood that one will conform. This apepars to be the case in this study, where the need to belong to one’s in-group increased the level of conformity, whereas the lack of desire to belong to an out-group meant that conformity levels were low.

Question 40

Explain Social Cognitive Theory with reference to one study.

Answer 40

Social Cognitive Theory is the idea that people learn by imitating the actions of others. The theory argues that we are more likely to imitate someone who is like us, that we identify with, if we have a sense of self-efficacy. Self-efficacy is the belief that we are able to imitate the behaviour. In addition, we also imitate those who receive vicarious reinforcement.

Bandura:
(Aim)
to determine whether children would learn aggressive behaviour by imitating an adult mode

(Procedure)
-Participants were 3 to 5 year old children
-Children were first evaluated to determine their level of aggression. Then made sure that the different levels of aggression were evenly distributed in the groups through matched-pair design.
-There were three independent variables in this study: whether the children were exposed to violence or not, the gender of the child, and the gender of the model.
-The children then watched either a male or a female model either act aggressively (bashing the Bobo with a baseball bat and yelling at the Bobo), act passively (assembling toys), or they had no model. This served as the control group to see what children would do when simply but with the Bobo.
-The children were then individually invited into a room full of toys. After they saw all the toys, they were told that they were not allowed to play with them since they were for other children. This caused all of the children to feel frustrated. This was important because Bandura wanted to make sure that they all had the same level of arousal.
-The results were that all of the children showed some level of aggression against the Bobo. However, the group that saw the aggressive model were the most aggressive. Those that saw the control were second, and those who saw the passive model showed the least aggression. In addition, the boys were the most violent. They tended to imitate both the male and the female models, though they commented that the woman’s behaviour was not acceptable, saying “Ladies should not behave that way.” Girls tended to imitate the verbal aggression of the male - and imitated the female model more directly. This shows that it each gender identified more with the same sex model.

(Conclusion)
This study demonstrates SCT. First, the children appear to have learned the behaviour by watching the models. Secondly, since there was no punishment for the models’ actions, thus the children imitated it. They had been vicariously reinforced. Lastly, the fact that they imitated the same gender makes sense. Since the children would identify with the same gender and they would feel that if he they can do it, so can I (self-efficacy), then they are more likely to imitate them.

Question 41

Explain one theory of the formation of stereotypes with reference to one study

Answer 41

Stereotyping is a form of generalization where one judges an individual based on group membership or physical attributes. A theory about the origin of stereotyping is illusory correlation. Illusory correlation is when people perceive a correlation between two variables when no actual relationship between the variables exists. A false correlation is the result of the fact that rare or surprising behaviours are more salient and thus we tend to notice and remember them more. This results in a cognitive bias that can affect one’s judgment and perception of an individual.

Hamilton and Gifford
A: relationship between group size and one’s perception of the group’s traits.
Procedure:
In the study, they showed participants statements about two groups simply called Group A and Group B.
- Group B was smaller than Group A and was thus the minority group.
- The participants were shown statements about individuals in each group and showed them either exhibiting positive or negative traits and behaviours.
- The proportion of positive to negative statements was the same in each group.
- After being shown these statements, the participants were asked to estimate how many positive and negative traits each group had.

Results:
- Participants overestimated the number of negative traits for the minority group and rated the minority group’s behaviour more negatively overall.
- The researchers argued that these results were the result of an illusory correlation.
- The proportion of negative to positive statements about each group was the same, so there was no actual correlation between belonging to the minority group and bad traits.
- The negative traits were more distinct in the minority group, because of the smaller group size and appeared to be representative of the group.
- The participants had made the illusory correlation between a number of the minority group and negative behaviour.
- This could lead to stereotypes being created that all members of the minority group had negative traits.

Question 42

Explain one study of the effects of stereotyping on behaviour.

Answer 42

A stereotype is when you have a schema about a group and you apply the characteristics associated with that schema to a single member of that group. One effect of stereotyping is called Stereotype Threat. Stereotypes can have a negative effect on members of the group to which the stereotype is applied, even if the members of the group do not believe the stereotype. Stereotype threat is a theory that says that when a person is made aware of a stereotype about his group, it can have a negative effect on his performance. According to Steele and Aronson, this is because the stereotype threat increases “spotlight anxiety” or the feeling that you are being judged. This anxiety then harms performance.

A: Steele and Aronson (1995) carried out an experiment to see if stereotype threat would affect the performance of African Americans on a test of verbal abilities.
P: All of the students in the sample were from Stanford University, so it can be assumed that they were of similar verbal ability.
- The first condition was told that the test was a test of their verbal abilities.
- In the second condition, they were not told this.
Results:
- When the first group was told it was a measure of their verbal abilities, the African Americans scored lower than the white Americans.
- When they were not told it was a test of their verbal abilities, African American students performed as well as the white Americans.
- In a final version of the experiment, they had a third group indicate their race on the test before beginning.
- In this case, the African Americans did worse than the white Americans.
- Stereotypes about the academic ability of African Americans led to spotlight anxiety which meant that they performed worse on the test.
- This shows that stereotypes can have a negative effect on performance even if the individual does not believe in the stereotype himself.
- This effect is strongest when the person is made aware of his group membership or of the stereotype.

Question 43

Explain one ethical consideration in one study of the individual and the group.

Answer 43

Deception means that the researcher either does not reveal the true aim of the study to the participants, or the participant is intentionally misinformed about the experiment. Deception is often used in psychology as a way to avoid demand characteristics by making sure that the participants do not know the goal of the study. In addition, the use of deception is sometimes necessary to study something that could not be studied otherwise - for example, if participants knew that a situation is staged or that confederates are not telling the truth, then the experiment would not make any sense. It would not test what it wanted to test and therefore lack validity.

A: Asch carried out a study on conformity. P: In order to do this, he told his participants that they were taking part in a study of visual testing.
- If he had said that this was a test of conformity, it would not have been possible to really test conformity.
- There was a control group that showed that people made no mistakes when tested alone on matching the length of lines.
- In the experimental condition, the participant was seated with five confederates.
- These people were in on the study and were playing a role.
- One by one the participants were asked to state which line matched the line on the original card; however, after a few trials, the confederates said the wrong line.
- This is an example of the second type of conformity where the participants are actively misinformed during the experiment. R: Asch found that about 70% of the participants conformed at least once, even though they may have known that the answer was incorrect.
- They later said that they did this to fit in or because they doubted themselves.

Question 44

Explain the use of one research method in one study of the individual and the group.

Answer 44

Observation: Unlike an experiment, observations do not have an independent variable. The goal of an observation is to see how people act in a given situation. This means that observations are often done under uncontrolled conditions.
-There is a mix of quantitative and qualitative data
-May be overt or covert (In an overt observation, the participants know that they are being observed. In a covert observation, the participants do not know that they are being observed; and can involve deception, or can be conducted in a public space where informed consent is not required)
-Can be naturalistic or lab
-May be participant or non-participant (In a participant observation, the researcher is part of the group that is being studied. In a non-participant observation, the researcher does not join the group, but observes from outside the group.)

Festinger:
(Aim)
to find out how members of a cult would behave when they found out that the world would not end on the day that they believed it would.

(Procedure)
-covert, naturalistic participant observation
-Festinger and his team integrated themselves as cult members to observe them and gather data
-Recorded data and took notes in the bathroom or “on walks”

(Results)
When “doomsday” arrived, they found that the cult members rationalized their situation - believing that their prayers had saved the world. In this way, it allowed them to save their self-esteem.

(Conclusion)
The researchers used a covert observation because they would not have been able to observe the cult in any other way. This group was a “closed” group, so by pretending to be interested in joining the cult, they were able to observe what they were doing. In addition, a covert observation avoids demand characteristics - that is, the participants do not change their behaviour simply because they know that they are being observed. The study is naturalistic because it was done in the normal cult environment, and the participants were not tested in a lab. Finally, the study was participant. It would not have been possible to observe such a closed group from “outside” and by being part of the group, the researcher had more control. He could ask direct questions and experience things more personally that were happening.

Question 45

Personal Relationships
-Discuss the biological or cognitive approach to understanding personal relationships.
-Discuss the sociocultural approach to understanding personal relationships.
-Contrast the biological and cognitive approaches to understanding personal relationships.

Answer 45

Personal relationships refer to close connections between people, formed by emotional bonds and interactions. These bonds often grow from and are strengthened by mutual experiences.

Question 46

Formation of personal relationships
-Discuss the formation of personal relationships.
-Discuss one or more factors that may affect the formation of personal relationships.
-Evaluate one explanation for the formation of personal relationships.
-Evaluate one or more studies related to personal relationships.

Answer 46

BIOLOGICAL FACTORS in the formation of personal relationships:

Intro: Psychologists who investigate the biological foundations of relationships mainly focus on the role of genetics, particularly in the formation of personal relationships, which is seen in Darwin’s theory of evolution. This type of research is known as evolutionary psychology.

Body: Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution proposed the idea to consider the role of evolutionary factors in forming personal relationships. Though people were initially convinced characteristics that promoted survival were passed through generations, modern mechanisms and technology demonstrated that genes were the key to the transmission of traits across generations. Darwinian viewpoint is now seen as a biological theory.

Darwin’s theory argued that males and females have evolved to use different mechanisms to assess what is attractive in a potential partner. This difference between the internal sexes originates during evolutionary adaptation to environments. This difference is seen in parental investment since females must undergo long pregnancies and provide care for each child, hence females would generally be attracted to the males’ ability to provide her resources and loyalty during these times of vulnerability. In contrast, the parental investment of males differs from females since their inability to become pregnant grants them more freedom to reproduce with a wider range of females. In addition, male need the female to be fit, thus he can carry a positive genetic legacy. Males and females differ in terms of what main factors influence the initial stages of a relationship.

Body: The Buss study addressees whether such differences constituted a universal: a characteristic that is impervious to social and cultural influences and common to humans worldwide. Buss then sought to explore the existence of a universal in relationship formation around the world to provide additional support for these differences between males and females in terms of mate choice. Buss et al. asked participants to imagine their partners being unfaithful to them. The type of scenario was manipulated by the researchers in being that participants were asked to imagine their partners being sexually unfaithful and were asked to imagine their partners being emotionally unfaithful. After measuring the levels of stress from imaging these scenarios, the results showed that males tended to be more distressed about sexual infidelity, whereas females tended to be more distressed about emotional infidelity. These results can be interpreted in terms of evolutionary theory by discussing how males distress would derives from sexual infidelity because they fear their sperm will be replaced by another man’s, thus reducing the chances that their genes will be passed on into the next generation. However, females distress of emotional infidelity stems from their fears their male partner forming emotional attachment to another female, thus her mate is unreliable and may re-distribute his resources. Therefore, this study provides some general evidence that males and females have gender-specific differences in terms of attractiveness judgments.

SOCIO AND COGNITIVE factors in the formation of personal relationships:

In contrast to an evolutionary explanation of relationship formation, some psychologists argued that our childhood experiences are more likely to play a role. Specifically, research on attachment has shown that the type of attachment we form derives from our caregiver and further progresses through time. Afte investigated children’s attachment for many years, John Bowlby proposed a theory that believes babies and toddlers form emotional attachments to familiar caregivers from about 6–30 months of age. Events that interfere with attachment can have both short-term and long-term consequences for the child. Bowlby used a cognitive perspective to assume that the childs early attachment schema guides future relationships. Bowlby thinks that if the caregiver exhibts attentive and responsive behaviors, the child will feel secure and loved, but if the caregiver is cold and distint, the schema will only develop in a negative form. Bowlby called the relationship schema the ‘internal working model’, which models expectations of behaviour and caregiving in relationships. Though Bowlby’s theory demonstartes an interaction between cognitive and social processes through attachment because the social interactions with the primary caregiver affect the construction of attachment schemas in the child.

Following years later, researchers continued the investigation of attachment processes in adulthood. Hazan and Shaver took a different approach than Bowlby: they assumed that the attachment styles that developed in infancy continue to influence adults’ relationship style and social life due to the important role of internal working models. Hazan and Shaver asked people to recall their childhood experiences. They found that adults who indicated that their childhood attachments had been secure described their romantic relationships as affectionate and caring. A supporting study, Fraley and Shaver, found that adults who experienced a positive attachment as a child tended to be more satisfied in their relationships than adults with an early insecure negative attachment. Secure adult relationships are characterized by trust and commitment and tend to be long-lasting relationships. This suggests that early attachment experiences are important in relationship formation and could effect individuals future relations in long term.

Question 47

Role of communication
-Discuss the role of communication in personal relationships.
-Discuss one or more studies and/or theories related to the role of communication in personal relationships.

Answer 47

SOCIAL factors in relationship communication

Intro: Relationships necessarily involve social activity as they are primarily seen as interactions between individuals in a social environment. Social signals provide cues to the receiver about whether the relationship is progressing. Social psychologists have researched which types of strategies are most relevant to relationship success. For example, Canary and Stafford (1994) identified five social strategies that facilitate relationship success and help maintain the relationship: Positiveness, Openness, Assurances, Social Networking and Sharing Tasks.

Body: In support with Canary and Stafford ‘s strageties and solutions, Gottman et al. agreed that positive communication is the most essential factor in maintaining relationships. They provided a 5:1 ratio of positivity to negativity, meaning that any negative statement cannot be counteracted with a single positive statement. Instead, any negative statement requires at least five positive statements.

However, other researchers felt that gender differences wern’t taken into account, and should have been, when analyzing communications relationships. For instance, Deborah Tannen wrote several books communication in relationship where she discusses different communication styles between men and women. Tannen concludes that understand the nuances of a person’s communication style in social interactions is the most effectful way to maintain a relationship.

BIOLOGICAL factors in relationship communication:

Intro: Observing interactions between people can help determine how social factors effect relationships. However, biological mechanism research can further help and validate studies. Such chemical mechanisms can be used to explain behavior, just like it did in Wedekind et als findings.

Body: Wedekind et al.’s findings suggested that mating behaviour is affected by pheromones in sweat because they indicate the similarity of immune systems in a potential partner. Wedekind et al concluded that females tend to prefer males with dissimilar immune systems, they may be more open to mate, further showing how unconscious biological communication mechanisms may be influential in relationships. An evolutionary foundation to this finding derives from mating with someone dissimilar in terms of their immune system, implying that they are genetically different, a factor that reduces the risk of congenital disabilities in offspring.

Communication patterns within family relationships also seem to be influenced by evolutionary biological factors. One theory in this area of research is family communication patterns theory, which was proposed by McLeod and Chaffee. The theory is based on homogeneous social reality within a family who shares behavioral patterns. Some researchers have proposed that achieving a shared social reality has an evolutionary function. For instance, Rueter and Koerner’s study provides evidence of this in their analysis of family communication in biological and adopted children across a range of families.

The study results showed that both biological and adopted adolescence were well afformed if their families commonly used conversation and conformity. However, adopted target adolescents were more vulnerable to being less well-adjusted than biological target adolescents if the families were high in conformity. These results suggest that positive family communication helps both adopted and biological children, but adopted children are more adversely affected by negative family communication than biological children. Overall, biological children are more resilient to negative family communication. From an evolutionary perspective, this is rational since inherited thinking patterns cement in the family group thus helping to ensure their survival.

COGNITIVE factors in relationship communication:

Intro: An influential theory in cognitive psychology is attribution theory, initially proposed by Heider. The theory’s assumes people make sense of our social world by using information recieved through senses to explain what is happening around us.

Heider suggested people try to explain experiences through the process of internal attribution, in which behavior is caused by an internal factor. For example, if we wave at someone we know in public, we assume they will give us the same treatment, but if they ignore us, we may explain their behaviour using an internal attribution concluding that they are rude. However, we could also explain their behaviour with as an external attribution, which Heider claims is due to an event outside a person’s control. For example, the person who ignored us may have simply just not see us. Mistaken attributions cause issues in situations where a person is available to take the blame. Eventually, this could cause future communication problems with that person.
Several researchers have conducted investigations into internal and external attribution in romantic relationships.

Stephanou studied attributional factors in adult romantic relationships in young adults where he received samples of people in current relationships who rated their relationship on an atrributional scale. For those participants in good relationships, it was revealed their success of the relationship was due to internal factors both within themselves and their partner. These internal factors included good communication and honesty. In contrast, the students rated themselves poorly shows how external attributions, such as lack of control of the situation and blaming their partner’s behaviour, contributes to their low findings. This study demonstrates how partners in positive relationships who have an internal attributional style are likely to communicate more effectively than those in negative relationships with external attributional styles.

Question 48

Explanation for why relationships change or end
- Evaluate one or more explanations for why relationships change or end.

Answer 48

SOCIAL factors in why relationships change or end:

Intro: Kurdek study of social factors such as interpersonal issues between romantic partners can contribute to a relationship breakdown. Kurdek identified communication problems and incompatibility between the partners as some of the interpersonal reasons why relationships might end.

Body: Kurdek investigated why homosexual relationships may dissolve. The homosexual participants were asked to complete an open-ended survey that investigated the reasons behind their break-up. The responses were coded, analyzed and grouped; communication problems was the most existing problem.

Kurdek concluded that out of all these issues, a communication breakdown was the major issue in the dissolution of homosexual relationships. These results indicate that interpersonal communication factors are important in relationship breakdown. In addition, relationships between heterosexuals contained similar results.

BIOLOGICAL factors in why relationships change or end

Intro: One factor that can play a role in the breakdown of relationships could be the personalities of the partners. It has been argued that aspects of our personality have biological foundations. For example, Dina et al. linked a chromosome region to individual differences in anxiety.

Body: Then, the DeYoung et al study found evidence for individual differences in brain structure contributing to personality style. For example, they found that agreeableness was linked to increased volume of cortex in the posterior cortex and neuroticism with an increased volume in the right prefrontal cortex and the left medial temporal lobe. Therefore, these two studies represent a small sample of evidence for biological substrates of personality and can be said to predispose individuals to act in their own unique way in terms of their personality. The Duck argued that predisposing personality factors could present background instability and resentment about relationships. In terms of DeYoung et al.’s study, this may persuade individuals with an increased volume in the right prefrontal cortex to higher levels of neuroticism, a term used in psychological research to describe people who are more prone to jealousy, anger issues, and depression. This could then create background instability and contribute to relationship breakdown. Although brain research is still in its infancy, it still shows the individual differences in anatomy that could affect personality type and the affect of success in a relationship. Since evidence on the role of personality factors is not always clear, the conclusions about how far anatomical differences contribute to the role personality plays in relationship breakdown remain tentative. Lehnart and Neyer studied personality factors involved in relationships. The sample of young adults in this investigation remained partners for a consecutive of eight years. Lehnart and Neyer found that personality traits were not an important predictor of a relationship change, but dissatisfaction was an important predictor of change within the relationship. They found that the supposedly dependable partner was an important protective factor for the relationship continuation.

COGNITIVE factors in why relationships change or end:

Intro: Some researchers attempting to explain why relationships change or break up focus on the assement partners undergo when evaluating their relationships potential. One popular notion that partners actively use cognitive analysis of their relationships is to assess both the benefits and costs of remaining with their partner. A theory called social exchange theory was proposed by Thibaut and Kelley,suggesting that partners use a profit and loss method of thinking to weigh up how they feel about a relationship.

Body: Profit indicators could be financial support from a partner and having regular physical contact. A loss indicator could include investing more time in the relationship than the other partner. Evidence for partners thinking in such terms about their relationship can be seen in the study by Rusbult and Martz where women in abusive relationships were interviewed after entering a protection shelter. They found that factors such like finances and factor strongly outweighed factors likepeer impoverished and homeless, thus most women would return to an abusive partner to rely on a stable lifestyle.
However, social exchange theory was criticised because it did not consider the concept of equity. Walster, Walster and Berscheid e proposed equity theory as an alternative to social exchange theory. In their model, a relationship that is perceived as more fair is more likely to break down. Equity theory additionally explains why some relationships that from the outside look unequal in terms of profit and loss. For example, if one partner is doing a lot of housework compared to the other partner, this may be perceived as equitable if the partner doing the housework is satisfied with the situation. This satisfaction could arise from them feeling that their partner works longer hours, so they feel it is fair to do more housework. Therefore, what is considered fair in a relationship is attributable to what partners think about their relationship. Stafford and Canary supported this theory in their investigation of married couples who were asked to complete measures related to satisfaction and equity. This study found that satisfaction was highest in couples who perceived their relationship to be equitable and suggests that inequitable relationships could be more at risk of dissolution.

Question 49

Discuss a biological approach to understanding personal relationships.

Answer 49

Evolution
- Johnston and Buss study

Question 50

Discuss a cognitive approach to understanding personal relationships.

Answer 50

Attributions
- Fincham and Grahm and Conoley study

Question 51

Discuss a sociocultural approach to understanding personal relationships.

Answer 51

Cultural Dimensions
- Buss and Holtz-Munuro

Question 52

Discuss ethical considerations in the study of personal relationships.

Answer 52

Anonymity
- Gottman & Levenson and Fincham

Question 53

Discuss one or more research methods used to study personal relationships.

Answer 53

Correlational studies
- Gottman and Levenson, Fincham and Graham and Conoley study