Hypnosis and Psychoactive Substances Flashcards
Hypnosis susceptibility, theories. Effects of Drugs
Describe the core characteristics of the hypnotic state:
An altered state of consciousness. Described by the feeling that the body was asleep by the mid was ‘alert’. Unique state of consciousness characterised by heightened suggestibility, focused attention and a heightened state of relaxation.
Explain the factors that make someone more susceptible to hypnosis and hypnotic suggestibility:
Differences in brain structure, greater ability to focus attention and ignore distraction, more active imagination, a tendency to fantasise, a tendency to be suggestible, positive attitudes and beliefs toward hypnosis. Willingness to be hypnotised is most important.
Describe the two main theories of how hypnosis works -
ROLE/SOCIO-COGNITIVE THEORY:
This theory suggests that hypnosis is a social phenomenon in which individuals adopt certain roles and expectations based on social cues and expectations. According to this view, hypnotic responses are the result of the subject’s willingness to conform to the hypnotist’s suggestions and expectations.
Describe the two main theories of how hypnosis works -
DISSOCIATION THEORY:
This theory proposes that hypnosis involves a state of divided consciousness, where the individual’s attention is split between different levels of awareness. According to this view, hypnosis creates a dissociative state in which certain mental processes are separated from conscious awareness.
Explain how psychoactive substances affect the brain to create an altered state of consciousness:
Altering the interactions between neurotransmitters and receptors. Drugs must first reach the brain by crossing the blood-brain barrier (blood vessels in the brain that block some substances from entering the brain.) Once past this point the psychoactive drug effects depend upon - which neurotransmitter systems the drug effects, How does the drug effect these neurotransmitters or their receptors, what psychological functions are normally performed by the brain systems that use these neurotransmitters.
Explain the role of expectations in enhancing the physiological effects of drugs -
PLACEBO EFFECT:
Expectations can trigger the placebo effect, where the mere belief that a treatment is effective leads to improvements in symptoms or outcomes. Placebo responses involve the release of endogenous neurotransmitters and activation of brain reward pathways.
Explain the role of expectations in enhancing the physiological effects of drugs -
NEUROBIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS:
Expectations can modulate neurotransmitter activity, pain perception, and other physiological processes in the brain. For example, anticipating pain relief from a painkiller can activate endogenous opioid systems, enhancing the analgesic effect.
Explain the role of expectations in enhancing the physiological effects of drugs -
PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS:
Beliefs, attitudes, and prior experiences shape expectations about a drug’s effects. Positive expectations can enhance the perceived efficacy and potency of a drug, while negative expectations can diminish its effects or lead to adverse reactions.
Explain the role of expectations in enhancing the physiological effects of drugs -
CONTEXTUAL FACTORS:
Environmental cues, social interactions, and cultural influences contribute to expectations about drug effects. For example, the setting in which a drug is administered, the demeanour of the healthcare provider, and cultural beliefs about drugs can influence expectations and responses.
Explain the role of expectations in enhancing the physiological effects of drugs -
CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS:
Harnessing the power of positive expectations can enhance the effectiveness of pharmacological treatments. Healthcare providers can optimise treatment outcomes by fostering trust, providing clear information, and promoting positive expectations about treatment efficacy.
Describe the three main classes of psychoactive substances and each class’s specific drugs -
DEPRESSANTS:
Depressants slow down central nervous system activity, resulting in relaxation, sedation, and decreased arousal.
EXAMPLES -
1. Alcohol: Depressant that acts on GABA receptors, leading to sedative effects, impaired coordination, and disinhibition.
2. GHB (Gamma-Hydroxybutyrate): Depressant and recreational drug that acts on GABA receptors, leading to sedation, euphoria, and disinhibition. It is sometimes used as a date rape drug due to its ability to induce sedation and memory impairment.
3. Barbiturates (e.g., phenobarbital): Central nervous system depressants once commonly used as sedatives and anesthetics, but now largely replaced by benzodiazepines due to their high risk of overdose and dependence. Barbiturates also act on GABA receptors, producing sedative and hypnotic effects.
Describe the three main classes of psychoactive substances and each class’s specific drugs -
STIMULANTS:
Stimulants increase central nervous system activity, resulting in heightened alertness, energy, and euphoria.
EXAMPLES -
Cocaine: Stimulant drug that blocks the reuptake of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin, leading to increased arousal, euphoria, and energy.
Amphetamines (e.g., Adderall, methamphetamine): Stimulant medications used to treat attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and narcolepsy, as well as illicit methamphetamine, which produces similar effects to cocaine but with a longer duration of action.
Caffeine: Mild stimulant found in coffee, tea, and energy drinks that enhances alertness and energy by blocking adenosine receptors in the brain.
Describe the three main classes of psychoactive substances and each class’s specific drugs -
HALLUCINOGENS:
Hallucinogens alter perception, mood, and cognition, leading to visual and auditory hallucinations, changes in thought patterns, and altered sense of time and reality.
EXAMPLES -
1. LSD (Lysergic Acid Diethylamide): Powerful hallucinogenic drug that alters serotonin receptor activity in the brain, leading to profound alterations in perception, mood, and consciousness.
2. Marijuana (Cannabis): Hallucinogenic drug derived from the cannabis plant, which contains the psychoactive compound delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). Marijuana alters perception, mood, and cognition, leading to euphoria, relaxation, altered sense of time, and changes in sensory perception.
2. Ketamine: Dissociative hallucinogenic drug used as an anesthetic and analgesic in medical settings, but also used recreationally for its hallucinogenic effects. Ketamine produces dissociation from reality, visual and auditory hallucinations, and profound alterations in perception and consciousness. It acts as a noncompetitive antagonist of the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor in the brain.
