Humanist, Existential + Positive Aspects Flashcards
Describe existentialism
HEIDEGGER 1962: An area of philosophy concerned with the meaning of human existence and talk about ‘being in the world’ which is the existential idea that the self cannot exist without a world and the world cannot exist without a person to perceive it.
The existential theory of psychology says that humans are searching for the meaning of life. Existential psychologists value the ability of humans to make their own choices and lead their own lives. Stress the positive sides of human nature as well as acknowlegde that ethical and moral guilt are essential aspects of human nature rather than incidental byproducts of biological aspects. Many theories of psychology focus on what’s lacking in the individual: this person has a chemical imbalance, which means he lacks some element in his brain. But existential psychology views people as whole and complete.
A. What Is Existentialism?
The first tenet of existentialism is that existence take precedence over essence, meaning that process and growth are more important than product and stagnation. Second, existentialists oppose the artificial split between subject and object. Third, they stress people’s search for meaning in their lives. Fourth, they insist that each of us is responsible for who we are and what we will become. Fifth, most take an antitheoretical position, believing that theories tend to objectify people.
B. Basic Concepts
According to existentialists, a basic unity exists between people and their environments, a unity expressed by the term Dasein, or being-in-the-world. Three simultaneous modes of the world characterize us in our Dasein: Umwelt, or the environment around us; Mitwelt, or our world with other people; and Eigenwelt, or our relationship with our self. People are both aware of themselves as living beings and also aware of the possibility of nonbeing or nothingness. Death
is the most obvious form of nonbeing, which can also be experienced as retreat
from life’s experiences.
Describe existentialism in the context of personality psychology
HOELLER 1990: This perspective is considered important in the study of personality as it acknowledges that people are active, conscious beings, always thinking. Existential theorists suggest that attempts to focus exclusively on self-concepts or cognitive structures will ultimately fail. Instead, we must examine people striving to make sense of their worlds by examining human beings in their worlds.
It can also take on a phenomenological approach where peoples perceptions and subjective realises are considered to b valid data for investigation. Two people can perceive a situation very differently and it is this phenomenological discrepancy that is paid attention too.
Describe existentialism theory of personality
Existential psychology focuses on the essence of humanity, the realization of being-in-the-world, the avoidance of nothingness, and how choices are driven by free will (Boeree, 2003).
The personality characteristics described by existential psychology include any phenomena that occur with an individual. According to existential theorists, all of the contents of the consciousness, relationships, thoughts, events, images, memories, fantasies, and more have
a role in developing one’s personality. Although both person -centered and existential theories support one’s movement toward self-actualization and self-acceptance, the personality characteristics important to existential psychology are more generalized: awareness, being present, continually creating existence through phenomena, and being self-aware.
What is a positivist view of the world
Focuses on the laws that govern the behaviour of objects in the world
Evaluate existentialism and personality
- ONTOLOGICAL DESCRIPTION: When applying philosophy to psychotherapeutic practice is that when philosophers think about human living they do so not as anthropologists or psychologists. They do not primarily preoccupy themselves with concrete experiences, but they rather allow themselves to build theories about human living in an abstract sense. They are concerned to describe the ontological dimension of life and only secondarily come to the concrete experience of the individual. They try to pinpoint what it is that makes human living possible and difficult in the first place.
Describe humanism
Humanism is a holistic psychological perspective that stemmed from the philosophical approach of existentialism as a rebellion to behaviourist and psychodynamic psychology. Existentialism is an area of philosophy concerned with the meaning of human existence that values the ability of humans to make their own choices and lead their own lives. Therefore, humanism argued the cocnious awareness of needs, choices and responsibility of the individual. It argues the existential idea that the self cannot exist without a world and the world cannot exist without a person to perceive it. Resultantly, humanists propose that in order to understand personality conclusively we must examine people striving to make sense of their worlds by examining human beings in their worlds. This approach also begins with the existential assumptions that phenomenology is central and that people have personal agency. Personal agency refers to the exercise of free will in regards to the choices individuals make in life, the paths they go down and their consequences.
Humanistic approach to personality argues a positivist viewpoint whereby individuals are fundamentally good, and have an innate need to make themselves and the world better. The humanistic approach emphasizes the personal worth of the individual, the centrality of human values, and the creative, active nature of human beings. So, it is optimistic and focuses on noble human capacity to overcome hardship, pain and despair. Therefore it rejects perspectives such as the disease model that focuses on what’s lacking in the individual such as a chemical imbalance, which means he lacks some element in his brain. Instead, existential and humanistic psychology views people as whole and complete. Subsequently, personality and human characteristics are attributed to free will and an innate drive for self-growth.
Outline of assumptions of humanistic approach
- Humans have free will; not all behavior is determined.
- All individuals are unique and have an innate (inborn) drive to achieve their maximum potential.
- A proper understanding of human behavior can only be achieved by studying humans - not animals.
- Psychology should study the individual case (idiographic) rather than the average performance of groups (nomothetic).
What did humanism essentially do in personality research
The theories included turned the study of personality away from psychopathology and toward the study of the most well adjusted and self-actualised people
Maslow argued that the continuing focus on the pessimistic view of humans as a collection of base biological drives or environmentally controlled robots would become a self-fulfilling prophecy
Led to the movement of positive psychology - the focus on positive attributes rather than on pathology
What are the main humanistic theories of personality
Rogers Person Centred Approach
Maslow
Describe Maslow’s theory of personality
Another humanistic theorist, Abraham Maslow, believes that each characteristic of human functioning relates to the whole person. Maslow refers to these functions as Hierarchy of Needs. There are five basic categories of human needs.
The first level is the physiological needs, which includes food, water, shelter, oxygen, and sleep. Until these needs are met, it is impossible to move on to the next level. The second level is safety needs, which incorporates the need for safety and security. One must seek out safety through other people and strive to find a world that will protect them and keep them free from harm. One can only continue to grow by meeting these goals in order to think about higher-level needs. The third level is the belonging and love needs, which includes the need for love, acceptance, and belonging. Once the individual is feeling safe and secure in their world they will seek out friendships to feel a sense of belonging. This level focuses on one’s desire to be accepted, to fit in, and to feel like they belong. The fourth level is esteem needs, which includes the need for achievement, education, competence, and respect. At this level, one focuses energy on self-respect, respect from others, and feeling that accomplishments have been made.
The final level is the need for self-actualization, which includes the need to realize our fullest potential. Maslow believed that those individuals who finally achieved self-actualization were said to represent optimal psychological health and functioning Maslow believes that while many people may be in this final level, very few master it (Burger, 2003, p. 319).
- Autonomous and independent
- Have accurate perceptions of reality
- Is able to accept himself, others and the society
- Often feels as one with nature
- Democratic and Appreciative
Define self-actualisation
Humans innate drive to reach a state of fulfillment in which a person is achieving at his or her highest level of capability.
Describe Roger’s theory of personality
Rogers was one of the main humanistic advocates who identified one’s self-concept as the frame upon which personality is developed. The self – defined as “the organized, consistent set of perceptions and beliefs about oneself” – is the humanistic term for who we really are as a person and our inner personality. Rogers argued that the self is influenced by the experiences, including childhood experiences and evaluation by others that a person has in their life, and our interpretations of those experiences. And it is not until self actualisation is reached that a person reaches their full potential in growth and becomes a fully functioning person; this is achieved when the person achieves congruence (balance) in three areas, self-worth, self-image, and ideal self.
However, Roger realized that very few people become fully functional, thereby creating defense mechanisms. Defense mechanisms allow people to protect their self-concept, thereby allowing them to continue to strive toward self-actualization (Heffner, 2002, p. 11). Rogers believed that the need for defense mechanisms stems from childhood, where children are taught conditional positive regard. When parents disapprove of a child’s behavior, love is withheld. Therefore, children are taught to hide their faults and weaknesses rather than accept them. Roger has proposed that only through unconditional positive regard can individuals know that they are loved no matter what they do (Burger, 2003, p. 313)
The humanistic approach states that the self is composed of concepts unique to ourselves. The self-concept includes three components:
- Self worth (or self-esteem) – what we think about ourselves. Rogers believed feelings of self-worth developed in early childhood and were formed from the interaction of the child with the mother and father.
- Self-image – How we see ourselves, which is important to good psychological health. Self-image includes the influence of our body image on inner personality. At a simple level, we might perceive ourselves as a good or bad person, beautiful or ugly. Self-image has an effect on how a person thinks, feels and behaves in the world.
- Ideal self – This is the person who we would like to be. It consists of our goals and ambitions in life, and is dynamic – i.e. forever changing. The ideal self in childhood is not the ideal self in our teens or late twenties etc.
Difference between Rogers + Maslow’s humanistic theories
While both Rogers and Maslow believe in self-actualization and fully functional people, they differ regarding a person’s childhood.
Rogers’ believed that a person’s childhood experiences could prevent self-actualization, whereas Maslow disregarded the role of a person’s childhood.
Maslow believed that as long as a person’s needs are met, the person’s childhood experiences do not hinder self-actualisation. Whereas Rogers added that for a person to “grow”, they need an environment that provides them with genuineness (openness and self-disclosure), acceptance (being seen with unconditional positive regard), and empathy (being listened to and understood).
Rogers believed that every person can achieve their goals, wishes and desires in life. When, or rather if they did so, self actualization took place. This was one of Carl Rogers most important contributions to psychology and for a person to reach their potential a number of factors must be satisfied.
What are the characteristics of a ‘fully functioning person’
Coined by Rogers in his humanistic theory:
- Openness to experience. This is the opposite of defensiveness. It is the accurate perception of one’s experiences in the world, including one’s feelings. It also means being able to accept reality, again including one’s feelings. Feelings are such an important part of openness because they convey organismic valuing. If you cannot be open to your feelings, you cannot be open to acualization.
- Living in the here-and-now. Rogers, as a part of getting in touch with reality, insists that we not live in the past or the future – the one is gone, and the other isn’t here yet! The present is the only reality we have. Mind you, that doesn’t mean we shouldn’t remember and learn from our past. Neither does it mean we shouldn’t plan or even day-dream about the future. Just recognize these things for what they are: memories and dreams, which we are experiencing here in the present.
- Organismic trusting. We should allow ourselves to be guided by the organismic valuing process. We should trust ourselves, do what feels right, what comes natural. Keep in mind that Rogers meant trust your real self, not the neurotic self so many of us have become! In other words, organismic trusting assumes you are in contact with the actualizing tendency.
- Freedom. Rogers felt that it was irrelevant whether or not people really have free will: We feel very much as if we do. This is not to say, of course, that we are free to do anything at all: We are surrounded by a deterministic universe, so that, flap my arms as much as I like, I will not fly like Superman. It means that we feel free when choices are available to us. Rogers says that the fully-functioning person acknowledges that feeling of freedom, and takes responsibility for his choices.
- Creativity. If you feel free and responsible, you will act accordingly, and participate in the world. A fully-functioning person, in touch with acualization, will feel obliged by their nature to contribute to the actualization of others, even life itself. This can be through creativity in the arts or sciences, through social concern and parental love, or simply by doing one’s best at one’s job.
Describe methodology in humanism
Humanistic psychologists rejected a rigorous scientific approach to psychology because they saw it as dehumanizing and unable to capture the richness of conscious experience. In many ways the rejection of scientific psychology in the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s was a backlash to the dominance of the behaviorist approach in North American psychology.
Therefore, qualitative methods are typically used, for example, diary accounts, open-ended questionnaires. Unstructured interviewing is particularly used as it allows access to other people’s views and experiences without imposing on them the researcher’s ideas about what is important. Where observation is used it is likely to be participant observation, with the researcher taking part in what they are studying in order to understand how the participants perceive it.
Thus it would appear that humanists favour research methods that will allow them to understand other people’s subjectivity. Consequently, they avoid methods that study people objectively, including experimentation and non-participant observation.
An EXAMPLE of this type of research is Maslow’s (1973) analysis of the characteristics of self actualisers. He selected probable self-actualisers from public and historical figures and used biographical and other documentary evidence to analyse what they had in common. He found that they tend to be unconventional and original, accepting of themselves and others, capable of deep and intimate relationships and that they have a wonder at and enjoyment of life.
