Human System Review-Bio 20-1 AP Flashcards

Question

Animal Fats

Answer 1

Solid Carries cholesterol Long saturated fatty acids

Answer 2

Semi-solids that are made by the bonding of 3 fatty acids to a long chain of alcohol instead of glycerol

Answer 3

Liquid No cholesterol Short unsaturated fatty acids

Answer 4

Becomes translucent (see-through) in the presence of lipids

Answer 5

Amino acids are connected together by peptide bonds

Answer 6

Makeup structures such as hormones, enzymes, membranes Energy is NOT the main function The most abundant organic molecule Synthesized at the ribosome Made up of amino acids and amino acids bonded together on strands that form protein

Answer 7

A chain of amino acids

Answer 8

Primary Secondary Tertiary Quaternary

Answer 9

Amino acids are in a linear sequence

Answer 10

Hydrogen bonds between amino acids made alpha helix and beta sheets

Answer 11

3-D, R groups interaction alters helix

Answer 12

Globular proteins (Ex. enzymes)

Answer 13

Adrenalin, Insulin, Collagen [skin], Keratin [hair], Actin & Myosin [Muscle]

Answer 14

A slight change to the structure by breaking hydrogen bonds Can be REVERSED

Answer 15

Breaking of bonds by extreme heat, acid or base Can NOT be reversed (Ex. frying an egg, high fever, stomach acid, base)

Answer 16

Tests for peptide bonds NOT individual amino acids If it turns BLUE- Negative (No protein), turns PINK [+] turns VIOLET [++], turns PURPLE [+++]

Answer 17

DNA & RNA Structure: Sugar + phosphate + nitrogenous base Genetic material that directs cell's activity

Answer 18

Increasing the concentration of a reactant in solution Increasing the surface area of a solid reactant, Increasing the temperature of the reaction system

Answer 19

No, it is not good for your body as it will denature proteins in the body.

Answer 20

Another way to SPEED UP the reaction rate It's a chemical that speeds up a chemical reaction but isn't used up in the reaction. Can be recovered unchanged when the reaction is finished Functions by lowering the amount of energy needed to start a reaction

Answer 21

A protein molecule that acts as a catalyst to increase the rate of reactions. Each enzyme has a very specific shape that allows it to attach to a specific substance molecule called the REACTANT When the substrate binds to the active site, its bonds become less stable and thus more likely to be altered and to form new bonds They are a quaternary proteins

Answer 22

The spot where the substrate binds to the enzyme

Answer 23

Is the substance that could fit into the enzymes

Answer 24

Temperature pH Inhibitors

Answer 25

Molecules that attach to the enzyme and reduce its ability to bind to the substrate

Answer 26

Attach somewhere else on the enzyme (NOT on the active site) Changes the shape of the enzyme, making so the substrate no longer fits properly.

Answer 27

Attach to the enzyme in its active site Compete with the substrate to occupy the active site space In biological systems, this is often the end product of enzymatic reactions as a form of negative feedback.

Answer 28

The taking in of nutrients

Answer 29

The breakdown of complex organic molecules into smaller parts by enzymes

Answer 30

The transport of digested nutrients to the cells of the body

Answer 31

The removal of food waste from the body

Answer 32

An enzyme that breaks down complex carbs (starch) into simple carbs

Answer 33

Produces saliva & salivary amylase

Answer 34

Important for physical digestion Grinds food into smaller pieces

Answer 35

Food moves from the mouth to the stomach through the esophagus

Answer 36

Rhythmic, wave-like contractions of muscles that move food along the gastrointestinal tract

Answer 37

Site of food storage and initial protein digestion. Involved in the physical & chemical digestion that mixes food with the gastric fluids Enzyme Pepsin starts protein digestion in the stomach Digestive fluids in the stomach include hydrochloric acid (HCl), pepsinogens and mucus. Has an ACIDIC enviroment

Answer 38

Protects the stomach from HCl & Pepsin

Answer 39

Completes digestion of macromolecules & absorbs their component sub-units Most chemical digestion & absorption takes place here Secretes digestive enzymes and moves its content along by peristalsis

Answer 40

Delivers pancreatic fluids to the duodenum and used for digestion in the small intestine Storage for bicarbonate ions that neutralize stomach acid in the small intestine Enzymes: Trypsin, chymotrypsin, pancreatic amylase, lipase are all found in pancreatic fluids

Answer 41

Secretion of the bile salts Continually makes bile and blood proteins Removes the highly toxic nitrogen group from amino acids forming urea Converts the toxic part of hemoglobin Converts glucose to glycogen and vice versa to maintain a constant blood sugar level Stores glycogen, vitamins A, B12 and D Converts harmful compounds to LESS harmful products (Ex. alcohol)

Answer 42

Stores bile

Answer 43

Reabsorbs water and salt from undigested food in the colon Houses bacteria like E-Coli which are essential to life Uses waste materials to make vitamins Digestion DOES NOT occur here Shorter but thicker than the small intestine

Answer 44

Most chemical digestion in the small intestine occurs in the duodenum

Answer 45

Produced by the pancreas Breaks down fats to glycerol & fatty acids Fats + H2O = glycerol + fatty acids

Answer 46

Produced by the pancreas Once activated to TRYPSIN by an enzyme called ENTEROKINASE it converts long-chain peptides into short-chain peptides

Answer 47

Protein digestion starts in the stomach with the enzyme pepsin. In the small intestine, proteins are further broken down by trypsin and chymotrypsin, enzymes secreted by the pancreas. Trypsin and chymotrypsin break peptide bonds between specific amino acids, forming shorter peptide chains. Additional enzymes continue breaking down these short peptides, separating single amino acids from the ends. Finally, peptidases from the pancreas and small intestine split the remaining peptide chains into individual amino acids, completing digestion. Summary: Digestion Starts: Stomach Digestion Ends: Small Intestine

Answer 48

Starch digestion starts in the mouth with salivary amylase. In the stomach, starch isn't digested because the acidic pH (around 2) inactivates salivary amylase, which works best at pH 7. Digestion resumes in the small intestine, where the pH is about 8. Pancreatic amylase breaks down starch into disaccharides, and other enzymes convert these into monosaccharides like glucose, galactose, and fructose. Digestion Starts in the MOUTH & ends in the SMALL INTESTINE

Answer 49

Monosaccharides are absorbed into the cells of the intestinal villi by active transport. From the intestinal lining, they enter the bloodstream and are carried directly to the liver. The liver converts monosaccharides like galactose and fructose into glucose. Glucose is then released back into the bloodstream and transported to body cells for energy. Any excess glucose is converted into glycogen by the liver and stored in the liver and muscles for later use. When needed, glycogen is converted back into glucose to fuel the cells. Absorption Pathway: Small intestine → Bloodstream → Liver → Bloodstream → Body cells

Answer 50

Amino acids are absorbed into the villi of the small intestine through active transport. They then diffuse into blood capillaries and are transported to the liver via the bloodstream. In the liver, amino acids undergo various reactions before being sent back into the bloodstream to be used by cells that need them. Absorption Pathway: Small Intestine (Villi) → Bloodstream → Liver → Bloodstream → Body Cells

Answer 51

Glycerol and fatty acids are absorbed into the cells of the villi in the small intestine by simple diffusion. Inside these cells, they are reassembled into triglycerides and coated with proteins to make them soluble. The coated triglycerides enter the lymph vessels in the villi and are transported to the chest region, where they join the bloodstream. Once in the bloodstream, the protein coating is removed by lipase in the blood vessel lining. Lipase then breaks down the triglycerides again, making fatty acids and glycerol available for use by the body. Absorption: Small Intestine [Villi] —> Lymph Vessels —> Bloodstreams

Answer 52

When fats enter the duodenum (the first part of the small intestine), they trigger the release of bile from the liver and gallbladder. Bile emulsifies large fat droplets into smaller ones, increasing their surface area. (This is a physical process, not chemical digestion.) Lipase, an enzyme secreted by the pancreas into the duodenum, chemically breaks down fats into glycerol and fatty acids through hydrolysis. Digestion Starts & Ends: Small Intestine

Answer 53

Absorption through active transport of amino acids & monosaccharides Absorbs glucose & amino acids

Answer 54

Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) are broken down in the small intestine by enzymes called nucleases, producing nucleotides. Nucleosidases further hydrolyze nucleotides into their individual components: nitrogenous bases, sugars, and phosphates. These components are then absorbed into the bloodstream via active transport.

Answer 55

Absorption through passive transport of fatty acids & glycerols (Tiny lymphatic vessels)

Answer 56

Control the passage of food from one area to another by use of a circular band of muscles

Answer 57

Between the esophagus & stomach

Answer 58

Between stomach & small intestine

Answer 59

Between the small intestine & large intestine

Answer 60

Below the rectum

Answer 61

Secreted by the salivary glands Starts the breakdown of polysaccharides to monosaccharides

Answer 62

Kills pathogens Helps convert PEPSINOGEN to PEPSIN Secreted by the stomach

Answer 63

When converted to pepsin by HCl it initiates the digestion of PROTEINS

Answer 64

Secreted by the pancreas and continues to breakdown of carbs into disaccharides Starch + Water = maltose

Answer 65

Secreted in the pancreas and neutralizes HCl from the stomach The orgin of secretion is the PANCREAS

Answer 66

Secreted in the SMALL INTESTINE and the pancreas it completes the breakdown of proteins Turns short-chain peptides --> Individual amino acids Peptides + water = amino acids

Answer 67

Disaccharides secreted by the small intestine Breaks down disaccharides to monosaccharides maltose + water = glucose

Answer 68

Produced by the liver and stored by the gallbladder till it is delivered to the small intestine Bile emulsifiers fat

Answer 69

Transportation system for oxygen, nutrients, and cell waste to move throughout the body

Answer 70

1. Transports gases (From the respiratory system) nutrient molecules (From the digestive system) and waste materials (From the executory system) 2. Regulate internal temperature & transport hormones 3. Protect **AGAINST** blood loss from injury & **AGAINST** disease-causing microbes or toxic substances introduced in the body

Answer 71

- 3 Major components: 1. ***Heart***: **Pushes blood** throughout the body with its **pumping action** & **generates** blood flow 2. ***Blood Vessels***: Serves as **PATHWAYS** for blood to move 3. ***Blood***: **CARRIES** nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide, water, waste and other materials throughout the body

Answer 72

"Cardio" = Heart "Vascular" = Vessels The cardiovascular system is the heart & blood vessels

Answer 73

Pumped by the RIGHT SIDE of the heart Transports oxygen-poor blood to the LUNGS When it gets oxygen from the lungs the oxygen-rich blood is returned through the Pulmonary Veins Vena Cava --> Right Atrium --> Rigtht AV Valve --> Left Ventricle --> Semilunar Valve --> Pulmonary Artery --> Lungs

Answer 74

Moves oxygen-rich blood from the left ventricle of the heart to the body tissues (Body Systems) It is pumped by the LEFT side Pulmonary Veins --> Left Atrium--> Left AV Valve --> Left Ventricles --> Semilunar Valve --> Aorta --> Body

Answer 75

Provides blood to the heart It is pumped by the LEFT side Aorta --> Coronary Artery--> Cardiac Veins

Answer 76

Arteries, veins, capillaries

Answer 77

- Carry **oxygen-rich blood** **AWAY** from the heart - **Highly elastic walls** allow the artery to **expand** as blood moves through during the **contraction** of the **ventricles** and snap back again during the **relaxation** of the **ventricles** Keeps blood flowing in the right direction Provides a pumping motion to help force blood through the blood vessels [You can feel this when you feel your pulse] - **MEMORY TIP**: Arteries —> Away (Both start with “A”)

Answer 78

- Carry **Oxygen-poor blood** towards the heart - Thinner walls & larger inner circumference than arteries - **NOT** elastic, **CANNOT** contract to help blood move to the heart, instead muscles help keep the blood flowing toward the heart - Have one-way valves that prevent blood from flowing backwards - Muscles RELAXED = Valves CLOSED - Muscles CONTRACTED = Valves OPEN

Answer 79

- Where gases, nutrients and other materials are transferred to tissue cells and wastes, including gases, move into the blood - Smallest blood vessels - Spread throughout the body in a fine network - The capillary wall is a single layer of cells with a tiny diameter making it so that the blood cells pass through a single file

Answer 80

Carries deoxygenated blood (Oxygen-poor) AWAY from the heart INSTEAD of the oxygenated blood arteries usually carry

Answer 81

Carries OXYGENATED blood (Oxygen-rich blood) to the heart INSTEAD of the deoxygenated blood veins usually carry.

Answer 82

Is an electrical signal coming from the heart SA Node [Pacemakers] --> Atria Contract --> AV Node --> Purkinje Fibres--> Ventricles Contract

Answer 83

- A bundle of specialized muscle located in the wall of the right atrium - Stimulates muscle cells to contract & relax rhythmically - Generates an electrical signal that spreads over the two arteries and makes them contract simultaneously It STARTS the impulses stimulating the heartbeat

Answer 84

- As the atria contracts the signal reaches the AV node - AV nodes transmit the electrical signal through a bundle of specialized fibre called the *bundle of His* - Those fibres relay the signal through two bundle branches that dive into fast, conducting Purkinje fibres, which start almost simultaneous contraction of all cells of the right & left ventricles

Answer 85

A nerve fibre that branches and carries electrical impulses throughout the ventricles

Answer 86

- The sound the heart makes can be described as a “lubb-dubb” sound - This sound is made by the closing of the different heart valves

Answer 87

- When the atria relax they fill with blood - The atria the contract, which increases fluid pressure and forces the AV valves open - This causes blood to flow from the atria to the ventricles - Next, the ventricles contract and this pressure forces ***the AV valves shut which produces the lubb sounds*** and pushes blood through the semilunar valves and into the arteries

Answer 88

- Next, the ventricles relax and their volume increases - This causes the pressure in the ventricles to decrease and blood is drawn to this area of lower pressure - Blood is prevented from re-entering the ventricles by the semilunar valves - ***The closing of the semilunar valves creates the dubb sound***

Answer 89

Amount of blood PUMPED by the heart each minute

Answer 90

Number of heartbeat per minute

Answer 91

Amount of blood forced out of the heart with each heartbeat

Answer 92

Cardiac Output = Heart Rate X Stroke Volume

Answer 93

Pressure against the vessel wall of the arteries

Answer 94

MAX pressure during the ventricular contraction

Answer 95

LOWEST pressure before the ventricles contract again Heart Pressure

Answer 96

Diet, Age, Stress, Exercise, Health Conditions

Answer 97

Increase Blood Pressure

Answer 98

Increasing Blood Pressure

Answer 99

Decreasing Blood Pressure

Answer 100

Decreasing Blood Pressure

Answer 101

Decreasing Blood Pressure

Answer 102

Increasing Blood Pressure

Answer 103

Systolic/ Diastolic = 120/80

Answer 104

- Strong hearts are able to pump more blood with each heartbeat (Greater Stroke Volume) - Cardiovascular exercise will increase a person’s resting stroke volume - Enlarge ventricular chambers - Increase the distensibility of their ventricles - Strengthen the ventricle walls so that the person is able to pump more blood with each beat

Answer 105

Maintenance of body temp within a range that enables cells to function efficiently

Answer 106

When it is cold the hypothalamus turns on the warming systems. It then sends a signal to the skeletal muscles to contract. Shivering occurs to generate heat. Body hair becomes erect to conserve heat. The skin blood vessels constrict (Vasoconstriction) and there is a decreased blood flow to the skin. Reduced heat loss from skin and retains the heat in the core of the body and to the brain.

Answer 107

A part of your brain that is responsible for coordinating many nerve and hormone functions It also turns on cooling and warming systems when needed. Helps regulate body temp by sending nerve impulse

Answer 108

When the blood vessels become bigger

Answer 109

When the blood vessels become smaller

Answer 110

When it is hot the hypothalamus turns on cooling systems. It then sends a signal to the sweat glands to initiate sweating. The evaporation of sweat causes cooling. At the same time, a nerve message is sent to the skin's blood vessels causing them to dilate. Increasing blood flow to the skin and the blood loses heat from the skin. RESULT: The body temperature decreases and the hypothalamus turns off cooling systems.

Answer 111

Plasma, Red Blood Cells, White Blood Cells, and Platelets

Answer 112

The fluid portion of blood Contains water, vitamins, dissolved gases, proteins, sugars, hormones, minerals and waste products The fluid portion of the blood Carry all the blood cells Plays a role in transporting carbon dioxide

Answer 113

The solid portion of the blood It contains RBC, WBC and platelets These are all produced in the bone marrow that is found inside the bone

Answer 114

Also called Erythocyted ~44% of all blood volume Has NO nucleus making more space for Oxygen gas Specialized in oxygen transport

Answer 115

Iron-containing respiratory pigment found in RBC - Special properties that allow it to pick up oxygen - Transports oxygen to the cells through diffusion It is like a magnet that attracts oxygen which creates oxyhemoglobin

Answer 116

A condition that occurs if there are too few RBCs or too little hemoglobin inside the RBC Reduces the amount of oxygen that is flowing through the body Symptoms: Feel tired, appear pale 2 Types: Iron-deficient anemia & Sickle Cell Anemia (More severe & genetic)

Answer 117

A type of anemia that develops if you do not have enough iron in your body. It is the most common type of anemia.

Answer 118

Is a group of inherited disorders that affect hemoglobin Normally, RBCs are disc-shaped and flexible so they can move easily through the blood vessels. In sickle cell disease, RBCs are misshaped, typically crescent- or “sickle”-shaped due to a gene mutation that affects the hemoglobin molecule. When RBCs sickle, they do not bend or move easily and can block blood flow to the rest of the body.

Answer 119

- Also called **Leucocytes** - Helps with fighting infection - Have Nuclei - Appears colourless - ~1% of total Blood Volume **BUT** increase by more than **DOUBLE** when fighting infection Types of WBC: Granulocytes, Monocytes & Lymphocytes

Answer 120

- Consists of neutrophils, basophils and eosinophils

Answer 121

- Can be further specialized as macrophages which destroy bacteria - Granulocytes & Monocytes engulf and destroy bacteria

Answer 122

- It can produce a protein that can incapacitate pathogens allowing them to be detected and destroyed

Answer 123

Fragments of cells that form when larger cells in the bone marrow break apart No nucleus Plays an important role in blood clotting

Answer 124

1. Platelets are activated & clump together to form a plug to stop the bleeding when a blood vessel is damaged. 2. Then the platelets release a protein called THROMBOPLASTIN. 3. Thromboplastin activates a plasma protein called PROTHROMBIN along with CALCIUM IONS [ca++] 4. PROTHROMBIN along with another plasma protein, called FIBIRNOGEN, is produced by the liver 5. Prothrombin transforms into THROMBIN 6. Thrombin act as an enzyme by splicing two amino acids from the fibrinogen molecule. 7. Fibrinogen is converted into fibrin threads, which wrap around the damaged area, trapping RBC and more platelets to form a clot and stops bleeding

Answer 125

GOAL OF THIS FIRST LINE OF DEFENCE IS TO PREVENT THINGS FOR GETTING INTO YOUR BODY [BLOODSTREAM] Ex. Skin, Mucus to trap foreign things, tears, eyelids, eyelashes, vomiting and blinking rapidly Physical & Chemical Defense [SKIN] - In your respiratory system mucus layers trap microbes and foreign particles and cilia (hair-like structures) sweep these particles away - In your stomach, acids and enzymes destroy microbes that enter your body

Answer 126

GOAL: If something enters the body DESTROY it. It will do this through MACROPHAGES.

Answer 127

GOAL: Targeted attack on a particular invader EX. B-cells & T-cells

Answer 128

Skin provides a protective barrier so bacteria or viruses cannot enter your body

Answer 129

The skin has acid secretions that inhibit the growth of microbes

Answer 130

Pus, Inflammatory Response, Fever

Answer 131

The remaining fragment of protein and White Blood Cell

Answer 132

The process by which a WBC engulfs and chemically destroys a microbe

Answer 133

One of the methods of the second line of defence. Leucocytes (WBC) engulf invading microbes through phagocytosis or produce antibodies. Special leukocytes called monocytes move from the blood to tissues and develop into macrophages. Then they attach to microbes and use enzymes to destroy the macrophage NOTE: Macrophages engulf the invader BUT the foreign antigens are not destroyed

Answer 134

Another method of the second line of defence. They are a type of WBC and are attracted to chemical signals given off by damaged cells. They move to the infected tissues engulf the bacteria and release enzymes that break down the microbe and the leucocytes (Neutrophils)

Answer 135

A plasma protein that helps defend against invading microbes by tagging the microbe for phagocytosis, puncturing cell membrane or triggering the formation of a mucous coating

Answer 136

Type of WBC that produces antibodies They roam the body searching for invaders Antibodies protect the body based on marks on the foreign invader

Answer 137

Seek out intruders and signal an attack, identify the invader by its antigens, a different T cell gives the information to a B cell

Answer 138

Type of lymphocytes Produces antibodies based on the foreign entities antigen

Answer 139

- Antibodies are specific (can only target the type of particle they are made for) and used to attack a specific type of foreign particle - Antigens are markers on the foreign particle that the antibody attaches to forming an antibody-antigen complex, this prevents the foreign particle from doing what it wants to.

Answer 140

They read the shape of the antigen of the foreign invader and release a chemical messenger called lymphokine

Answer 141

A protein produced by the T-cells that acts as a chemical messenger between other T- cells and B-cells It causes the B-cells to divide and a second message is sent from the T cells to the B-cells causing the production of antibodies

Answer 142

It is activated by the Helper T-cell A type of T-cells that puncture the cell membrane of infected cells which kills the cells

Answer 143

This occurs when the immune system makes a mistake and attacks harmless visitors from the environment [Outside the body], causing the body to swell, itch or create mucus.

Answer 144

During the infection, they hold an imprint of the antigen so that the body is better equipped for future attacks

Answer 145

A T-cells that turns off the immune response

Answer 146

The immune system fails to recognize foreign invaders

Answer 147

The immune system attacks the normal body cells, rather than protecting them.

Answer 148

The helper T-cells are destroyed

Answer 149

Is the clumping of red blood cells that can clog blood vessels, block circulation and cause severe damage to organs. The presence of antibodies causes this if mixed with an incompatible blood type

Answer 150

RBCs have type A surface antigens Plasma has anti-B antibodies

Answer 151

RBCs - have type B surface antigens - Plasma has anti-A antibodies

Answer 152

RBCs have - type A & type B surface antigens - Plasma has NEITHER anti-A or anti-B antibodies

Answer 153

RBCs - have NEITHER type A NOR type B surface antigens - Plasma has BOTH anti-A and anti-B antibodies

Answer 154

- People either have Rh+ (HAS antigen) or Rh- blood (DOES NOT have antigen) - Generally, people with positive blood can receive from **positive or negative** but people with negative blood can receive only from negative

Answer 155

- If a mother is Rh- and a father is Rh+ the baby can be Rh+ - The Rh+ blood cells of the child may leak across the placenta into the mother’s bloodstream which causes the mother’s immune system to produce anti-Rh antibodies - **This is not a problem for the first pregnancy** - For any later pregnancies, these anti-Rh antibodies can destroy the child’s RBCs

Answer 156

- Occurs when the anti-Rh antibodies the mother has crossed into the placenta and destroys the baby’s red blood cells - Can cause brain damage, deafness and death - As the red blood cells break down the liver produces a substance called bilirubin which causes jaundice (skin and tissue turn yellow) which is a sign when diagnosing HDN - ***Treatment***: - Blood transfusion for the baby or inducing early labour so the situation doesn’t get worse - ***Prevention:*** - Now mother’s blood type is tested prior to the birth of the first child and an injection can be given just after the birth of the first child to prevent the mother’s body from producing antibodies

Answer 157

- Marker (ID) on the cell’s membrane - A substance that is usually a protein that stimulates the formation of an antibody

Answer 158

- “Y” shaped proteins that attach to foreign antigens - Slows down the foreign cells allowing the leucocytes to attack and kill the foreign cell

Answer 159

- Ensure that **oxygen** is brought to each cell in the body and that **carbon dioxide** can leave each cell & be removed from the body. - **Respiration** is the general term to describe this process

Answer 160

- The area must be large enough for the exchange of oxygen & carbon dioxide to occur at a fast enough rate to meet the body’s needs.

Answer 161

Huge Respiratory Surface Area Moist Environment

Answer 162

Breathing External Respiration Internal Respiration Cellular Respiration

Answer 163

Respiration **MUST** take place in a moist environment so that oxygen & carbon dioxide are dissolved in water

Answer 164

- Exchange of oxygen & carbon dioxide between the **air** and the **blood* Takes place in the lungs

Answer 165

- Involves **inspiration** (Breathing in/ Inhaling) & expiration (Breathing out/ exhaling)

Answer 166

Bronchi--> Bronchioles--> Alveoli --> Lungs --> Pleural Membrane

Answer 167

Exchange of oxygen & carbon dioxide between the **body’s tissue (Body cells)** & the **blood** Takes place within the body

Answer 168

- A chemical reaction inside the cells using oxygen and nutrients to get energy

Answer 169

Nasal Passages --> Pharynx--> Epiglottis --> Larynx --> Trachea PATH OF AIR: Air enters through the nose & mouth

Answer 170

Warm, moisten and clean upcoming air

Answer 171

A.K.A. Throat The passageway for air into the respiratory system

Answer 172

The opening of the trachea

Answer 173

A flap that makes sure the food doesn't go into your lungs & air does go into your lungs, when a person swallows the epiglottis closes over the glottis

Answer 174

A.K.A. Windpipe Air moves down here after passing through the larynx. Has a C-shaped cartilage rings that give it structure Branches into TWO smaller passageways.

Answer 175

A.K.A. Voice Box Made of cartilage contains vocal cords

Answer 176

Each lung is surrounded by a thin, double-layered membrane called the Pleural Membrane. Prevents friction between the lungs and the chest walls during breathing. Helps create a negative pressure within the pleural cavity which keeps the lungs inflated and allows them to expand smoothly as the chest cavity enlarges during inhalation.. Protects the lungs Maintains lung position.

Answer 177

The smaller passageways that the trachea separated into Bronchi is PLURAL, Bronchus is SINGULAR Enter the RIGHT & LEFT lungs

Answer 178

Each bronchus subdivides into smaller and finer tubes called bronchioles within each lung

Answer 179

Each lung is divided into regions called lobes Each lobe is made of many lobules that extend from each bronchiole 3 lobes on the RIGHT lung 2 lobes on the LEFT lung

Answer 180

OUTER LAYER: Attaches to the inside of the chest wall INNER LAYER: Attaches to the lung INBETWEEN FLUID: Fills the space between so that they attach together This allows the lungs to expand & contract with chest movement

Answer 181

Each bronchiole ends in a cluster of tiny sacs (SINGULAR: Alvelous) This is where gas exchange occurs Each alveoli is covered by a membrane called the alveolar wall The alveolar wall is one cell thick and is surrounded by a network of capillaries

Answer 182

- Intercostal muscle **contract** - Diaphragm moves **DOWN** (contracts) - The rib cage moves **up & outwards** - The volume of the thoracic cavity **increases** - Air pressure in the lungs **decreases** causing air to move **INTO** the lungs

Answer 183

- Intercostal muscles **relax** - Diaphragm moves **UP** (Relax) - Rib cage moves **down & inward** - The volume of the thoracic cavity **decreases** - Air pressure in the lungs **increases** causing air to move **OUT** of the lungs

Answer 184

Occurs in the LUNGS Gases are exchanged between the alveoli and the blood in the capillaries

Answer 185

Walls of the alveoli & the capillaries each are one cell thick, which allows gases to diffuse through their membrane

Answer 186

Air moves from HIGH-pressure to LOW-pressure

Answer 187

A specialized nerve recpetor that is sensitive to specific chemicals Carbon dioxide LOWERS the pH of the blood (Making it MORE acidic) This is detected by the chemoreceptors in your brain which sends signals causing you to breathe deeper INCREASE in carbon dioxide = INCREASE Breathing Rate.

Answer 188

Carbon Dioxide regulates breathing NOT oxygen.

Answer 189

- Most of the oxygen & carbon dioxide exchange is done by simple diffusion (Movement from HIGH concentration —> LOW concentration) - About 30% of the oxygen transfer happens by facilitated diffusion: - Protein-based molecules in the alveoli “carry” oxygen across the membrane - This **DOES NOT** require energy because it is still with the concentration gradient - This is done to **SPEED UP** gas exchange

Answer 190

- After the gas exchange between the capillaries & alveoli, the blood goes back to the heart and is then pumped into the body - Gases are then exchanged between the blood and cells Blood --> Body Tissues

Answer 191

~99% of the oxygen is carried in the red blood cell by hemoglobin This is called "OXYHEMOGLOBIN" The rest of the oxygen is dissolved in the bloodstream

Answer 192

- Slightly less than 1/4 of the Carbon dioxide is carried in the blood by hemoglobin- which forms carbaminohemoglobin - ~7% is carried in the plasma - ~70% is dissolved & carried in the blood as bicarbonate into ($HCO_3^-$) - Carbonic acid $(H_2CO_3)$ is formed in the blood when a carbon dioxide molecule $(CO_2)$reacts with a water molecule $(H_2O)$ - $CO_2 +H_2O = H_2CO_3$ - The carbonic acid breaks down into a hydrogen ion $(H^+)$ and a bicarbonate ion – which occurs in red blood cells - The $(H^+)$ combines with the hemoglobin and the bicarbonate ion diffuses out of the red blood cells into the plasma, which is carried to the lungs - When the blood reaches the lungs the whole process is reversed to form carbon dioxide and water

Answer 193

Measure the amount of air that moves in and out of the lungs

Answer 194

A graph that measures Tidal Volume, Inspiratory Volume, Expiratory Volume, Vital Capacity, Residual Volume

Answer 195

- The volume of air that is inhaled and exhaled in a normal breathing movement at rest (Breathing normally)

Answer 196

An additional volume of air that can be taken into the lungs beyond tidal/regular

Answer 197

- The additional volume of air that can be forced out of the lungs beyond tidal

Answer 198

- Calculated by: - Tidal volume + Inspiratory Reserve Volume + Expiratory Reserve Volume

Answer 199

Amount of gas that remains in the lungs even after full exhalation

Answer 200

Filtering units within the kidney There are approximately 2 million of them

Answer 201

Carries blood AWAY from the kidenys that has been filtered & has minimal waste

Answer 202

Carries blood TO the kidneys that are filled with waste and need to be cleaned

Answer 203

Tubes that carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder

Answer 204

Stores urine

Answer 205

Tube that carries urine from the bladder out of the body

Answer 206

Filters blood so that waste can be removed Help to regulate blood pH The major metabolic waste products are carbon dioxide, sodium, chloride, urea & uric acid

Answer 207

Produced as a waste product during metabolism Very toxic so the liver immediately converts it to less toxic waste products that ultimately form urine

Answer 208

Forms from the breakdown of nucleic acids (DNA & RNA)

Answer 209

Forms from the breakdown of the amino acid (PROTEIN)

Answer 210

Renal Pelvis Cortex Medulla

Answer 211

Receives urine before sending it to the ureters

Answer 212

The OUTER layer of the kidney, UPPER position of the nephron

Answer 213

The INNER layer of the kidney, a LOWER portion of the nephron

Answer 214

Takes CLEAN blood from the kidney to the heart

Answer 215

Takes DIRTY blood AWAY from the heart TO the kidney

Answer 216

Glomerule filtration, Tubular reabsorption, tubular secretion, Water reabsorption

Answer 217

A small branch of the renal artery that carries blood to the glomerulus

Answer 218

A small branch of the renal artery that carries blood AWAY from the glomerulus to the capillaries

Answer 219

Move water & solutes NOT proteins & blood cells from the plasma into the nephron. Formation of urine STARTS here. Forces some of the water & dissolved substance in the blood plasma from the glomerulus into the Bowman's Capsule 2 Things that allow this to happen: Permeability of the capillaries of the glomerulus. Higher Blood Pressure

Answer 220

The filtered fluid

Answer 221

- The capillaries of the glomerulus have many pores in the tissue walls which allow water & dissolved substances to easily pass through BUT are small enough that proteins & blood cells can not enter.

Answer 222

- The Blood pressure in the glomerulus is 4x greater than the rest of the body to force blood through for filtration

Answer 223

Removes useful substances such as sodium from the filtrate and RETURNS them into the blood for reuse by body systems

Answer 224

- Approx 65% of the filtrate that passes through the entire length of the proximal tubule is reabsorbed and returned to the body - Cells of the proximal tubule have lots of mitochondria The majority of glucose is reabsorbed in the PROXIMAL TUBULE

Answer 225

- Function is to reabsorb water and ions from the glomerular filtrate - The deeper portion of the loop of Henle enters a salty environment in the medulla - The descending limb is permeable to water and only slightly permeable to ions - The salty environment draws water out through osmosis leaving a high concentration of $Na^+$ at the bottom of the loop - When the tubule goes around the bend and ascends up the permeability changes - Becomes impermeable to water and slightly permeable to solutes  causes sodium ions to diffuse from the filtrate and pass into blood vessels - At the thick-walled portion of the ascending limb, sodium ions are moved out of the filtrate by active transport - This does two things: 1. Helps replenish the salty environment of the medulla 2. Makes the filtrate less concentrated than the tissues and blood in the surrounding cortex tissue

Answer 226

Moves wastes & excess substances from the blood into the filtrate

Answer 227

- Active reabsorption of the sodium ions from the filtrate in the kidneys depends on the needs of the body - Passive reabsorption of negative ions such as chloride occurs by electrical attraction - Reabsorption of ions decreases the concentration of the filtrate, which causes water to be reabsorbed by osmosis - Potassium (K+ ) are actively secreted into the distal tubule from the bloodstream - Hydrogen ions (H+ ) are also actively secreted in order to maintain pH of the blood - Other substances that happen to be in the body that are not naturally there (such as different medications) are secreted into the distal tubule

Answer 228

Removes water from the filtrate and returns it to the blood for reuse by the body systems

Answer 229

- Collecting duct extends deep into the medulla and the concentration of ions in the medulla increases (due to active transport of ions from the ascending limb of the loop of Henle) - This causes passive reabsorption of water from the filtrate in the collecting duct by osmosis

Answer 230

- If a person is dehydrated the permeability to water in the distal tubule and collecting duct is increased so that more water is reabsorbed into the blood to conserve water in the body - Reabsorption of water in the collecting duct causes the filtrate to be about four times as concentrated by the time it exits the duct - Filtrate (which is now ~1% of the original filtrate volume) is now called urine and leaves the body

Answer 231

Cells that are sensitive to osmotic pressure in the blood and surrounding extracellular fluids. Most are found in the hypothalamus

Answer 232

Blood plasma is too concentrated (You are DEHYDRATED) Osmotic pressure INCREASES This causes the osmoreceptors in your hypothalamus to send a signal to your pituitary gland (another part of your brain) which releases the hormone ADH (antidiuretic hormone)

Answer 233

When blood plasma is too dilute (Too much water and not enough solute) the osmotic pressure DECREASES. This causes the osmoreceptors in your hypothalamus to send a signal to stop or decrease the release of ADH

Answer 234

ADH travels to your kidney where it INCREASES the permeability of the distal tubule and collecting duct allowing more water to be reabsorbed in the blood

Answer 235

When ther is too much water the osmoreceptors in your hypothalamus to send a signal to stop or decrease the release of ADH - Distal tubule and collecting duct become less permeable to water and MORE water is excreted through urine

Answer 236

- Controlled by the hormone Aldosterone - If the $Na^+$ concentration drops: - Aldosterone stimulates the distal tubules and collecting ducts to reabsorb Na+ - This leads to passive reabsorption of chloride ions and water - Aldosterone also stimulates the section of potassium ions into the distal tubules and collecting ducts if the concentration of potassium ions in the blood is too high

Answer 237

- pH of body fluids is about 7.4 The body can maintain this by: - Acid-base buffer system in the body by adding/removing hydrogen ions - Changes to breathing rate – changes carbon dioxide levels - Kidney’s controlling pH by excreting $H^+$ and reabsorbing $HCO_3^-$ [Bicarbonate ions]

Answer 238

Dialysis is a treatment that acts like an artificial kidney to clean your blood.

Answer 239

CAUSE: Low levels of insulin produced by the pancreas, leading to HIGH blood sugar SYMPTOMS: HIGH concentration of glucose in the urine, frequent urination

Answer 240

CAUSE: Inflammation of the nephron. The Nephron can become permeable to large solutes like proteins or even blood parts SYMPTOMS: Proteins in Urine, Frequent urination

Answer 241

CAUSE: Development of crystalline the formation called the kidney stones (Usually formed due to excess calcium) SYMPTOMS: Extreme pain

Answer 242

CAUSE: Bacterial or Viral infection If the BLADDER is involved, it is called CYSTITIS If the URETHRA is involved URETHRITIS SYMPTOMS: Painful burning secretion during urination, feeling as if you need to pee even if you DO NOT. Bloody or brown urine

Answer 243

CAUSE: Accumulation of acid in the BODY, due to a failure of the kidney to properly filter blood SYMPTOMS: Tired, muscle weakness can lead to kidney stones, urine has a very HIGH pH (Very BASIC)

Answer 244

Muscle tissue is specialized to convert CHEMICAL ENERGY into KINETIC ENERGY - energy of MOVEMENT All muscles can contract (SHORTEN)- when they contract some part of the body or the ENTIRE body moves

Answer 245

- Long & tapered at each end - Have one nucleus - Usually arranged in parallel lines forming sheets - Found in many parts of the body such as walls of certain blood vessels, the iris of the eye, walls of internal organs - Contracts **INVOLUNTARY** - Slower to contract than skeletal muscle, it can sustain prolonged contractions & does not fatigue easily

Answer 246

Smooth Muscle Cardiac Muscle Skeletal Muscle

Answer 247

- Forms the wall of the heart - Cells are tubular and striated (Have bands of light & dark) - Have **ONE** nucleus - Branched- create a net-like structure - Contracts **INVOLUNTARY** Controlled by the nerves of the autonomic nervous system

Answer 248

- Are tubular and striated - “Meat” (Flesh) of animal bodies in skeletal muscle - Contraction is **VOLUNTARY**- consciously controlled by the nervous system - Humans have over 600 skeletal muscle - Very long cells with many nuclei- length need for energy & materials require them to be controlled by many nuclei - Usually referred to as fibres rather than cells

Answer 249

Attaches each end of a muscle to a different bone

Answer 250

- Supports the body contraction of skeletal muscle opposes the force of gravity & enables us to stand - Allows body to move- allows for movement of bones, arms, legs, eyes, facial muscles, breathing - Helps maintain body temperature- muscle contraction causes ATP to break down which releases heat that can be distributed throughout the body - Helps to protect internal organs - Stabilizes joint

Answer 251

- When muscles contract, they **SHORTEN** this means muscles can only **PULL** not **PUSH** - When a muscle contracts, there needs to be a force available to later stretch it back to its returned state- to do this muscles work in pairs each performing the opposite action - Ex. in your arm the **bicep muscle** causes the arm to **flex (bend)** as the muscle shortens and the triceps muscle, causes the arm to **extend (straighten).** When the triceps muscle contracts, this stretches the relaxed bicep muscle.

Answer 252

Each skeletal muscle in the body lies along the length of a bone - Muscle fibres can be up to 20 cm long and are organized into many longer bundles making up the muscle - A layer of connective tissue wraps around each fibre, another layer wraps around each bundle of fibres, and another wraps around the whole muscle itself - Blood vessels & nerves run between the bundles of muscle fibres - Rich blood supply provides muscle fibres with nutrients & oxygen to power contraction & remove cell waste - Nerves trigger & control muscle contractions - Most of the volume of a muscle fibre consists of hundreds of thousands of cylindrical subunits called **myofibrils** - Each myofibril is made of even finer myofilaments, which contain protein structures that are responsible for muscle contractions - The rest of the volume of muscle fibre consists of numerous mitochondria & other organelles common to cells

Answer 253

Protein that makes the muscle contracts Thick myofilaments

Answer 254

Protein that makes the muscle contracts Thin myofilaments

Answer 255

A thread of contractile proteins found within muscle fibres Actin & Myosin are a type of myofilaments

Answer 256

Muscle--> Muscle fibre bundles --> Muscle fibres --> Myofibrils --> Myofilaments

Answer 257

Prevents myosin from binding to actin

Answer 258

1. Calcium ions flood into sarcoplasm (cytoplasm of muscle cell) 2. Calcium binds to the protein troponin which causes tropomyosin to shift position & expose the binding site on the actin molecule 3. Myosin uses ATP 4. Myosin head binds to the binding site on actin with the help of the protein tropomyosin 5. Myosin pulls actin towards the center of the sarcomere (Muscle fibre) 6. ATP causes detachment of the myosin head from actin 7. Calcium releases & dissolves 8. Troponin/ Tropomyosin release (Goes back to normal spot)