Human Relationships - Studies Flashcards
Buss (1960)
Used for: Formstion of relationships, sociocultural approach, and biological approach
Aim: To investigate whether there are any universal differences between male and female partner preferences.
Method:
Procedure: Over 9000 people from 33 countries on 6 continents and 6 islands were sampled. A questionnaire was given (translated into native languages). It contained one section were participants were asked to rate 13 characteristics (ex. Chastity, good health) on their importance in a partner. Rating wss done on a 4 point scale (0 not important). In another section, they were asked to rank 13 characteristics on their desirability. some examples: religiousness, good earning capacity, kindness.
Results: Some cultural differences were found. African responses revealed more sex difference in responses and gave more importance to factors like religion and chastity. Asians put a higher value on health, chastitiy and domestic skills. However, overall the responses were similar across cultures. There were sex differences in all countries: males preferred physically attractive mates while females preferred ambitious and high earning mates in comparison. The sex differences were larger in countries which practices polygamy.
Conclusion: Supports biological approach through the evolutionary theory as there was concrete evidence of universal sex differences. Supports sociocultural approach as cultural differences prove to influence mate preferences due to norms, values, expectations, etc.
Clark & Hatfield (1989)
Used for: Formation of relationships, biological approach, ethics, field experiment
Aim: To investigate if men are more open to casual sex than women, supporting parental investment theory.
Method: A field experiment on a University Campus around 1980 with students.
Procedure: Confederates approached the participants saying they had seen them on campus and asked questions about inviting them to their apartment or sleeping together (ex. Would you go to out with me tonight or go to bed with me tonight?)
Results: More men agreed than women when asked to go the confederates apartment or sleep with them.
Conclusion: Supports parental investment theory as there are sex differences in agreeing to casual sex (since men, in theory, only require short-term mating opportunities while women favor long-term partners). It can also be seen as females maximizing the quality of their mates.
Evaluation: Replications have found relaible results. high ecological validity since it is a field experiment. However, the cultural context (specific university in the US) may not provide a proper overview for generalization. Also, openness to casual sex does not necessarily have to relate to the theory, social norms and safety concerns may also factor in. Involves deception which may cause discomfort or emotional distress. There is no informed consent before being approached with uncomfortable questions. Societal norms and expectations may cause different levels of emotional discomfort for males vs females. They had no right to withdraw sine they didnt know of the study.
Collins & Miller (1994)
Used for: communication in relationships
Aim: To investigate if we like people more if they disclose more about themselves.
Method: A meta-analysis of several studfies into self-disclose and its role in maintaining relationships, particularly in reference to liking. This was used to assess overall patterns and relationships.
Results: People who disclose more information tend to be more liked. People disclose more personal information to people they like. People tend to like others more after they themselves have disclosed personal information to them.
Conclusion: Highlights the importance of self-disclosure in relationship formation and maintenance and its role in building trust and closeness.
Gottman (1980s -2007)
Used for: Communication, why relationships end, ethics, research methods
Aim: to asess communciation patterns between couples and how they predict relationship stability by aanlyzing interactions during conflicts / identifying key factors of relationship dissolution by observation of couples during conflict
Method: Observational study in a controlled setting
Procedure: Couples were brought into a controlled lab setting (“Love lab”) where they discussed common areas of conflict. Their verbal and non-verbal behaviour swere recorded and analyzed for positive/negative communication styles. Physiological data like heart rate was also monitored. The couple swere then followed up years later to check of relationship outcomes.
Conclusion: Effective communication, characterized by a ratio of positive-tonegative interactions (5:1) and the absence of negative behaviour shelps maintain relationship stability. This suggests improving communication strategies can prevent conflicts from escalating. Couples who failt o manage negative communication with a low ratio are more liekly to experience relationship dissolution.
Evaluation: Logitudinal design which provides long-term, rich data. Large sample size increases generilazbility. High predictive validity with mathematical model and careful analysis by trained experts. Triangulation of methods. However, it primarily involves US couples and the lab setting is highly controlled (low ecological validity). No causation is established,d only correlation. Potential research bias and low consturct validity.
Felmee (1995)
Used for: why relationships end
Aim: Proposed the fatal attraction theory. To inevestigate if this couldbe supported by research.
Method: survey?
Procedure: 301 university students (both genders) were esked about their most recent romantic relationship that ended and list qualities that attracted them to their partner, and qualities that led to their break up.
Results: Identified almost 30% of the breakups as fatal attraction. There were 3 common patterns: fun to foolish, strong to domineering, and spintaneous to unpredictable.
Conclusion: fatal attraction could lead to the end of relationships
Dion et al (1972)
Used for: Cogntivie approach
Aim: To investigate the role of the halo effect in choosing a partner.
Method: Experiment - 30 male and 30 female studys from a US university.
Procedure: Participants were told that they were carrying out a study of “accuracy in people perception” and were told that they were being compared to those trained in this area. Each participant was given an 3 envelopes (one with an attractive, one moderate, one unattractive). Half were given photos of the same gnder half opposite. To determine attractiveness, 100 students from the university was asked to rate attractiveness of 50 yearbook photos of people from the opposite sex, 12 diff3erent sets of photos were used for this study. Randomly allocated. Participants were asked to rate the person in the photo on 27 personality traits on a 6-point scale. After this, they completed a survey about which would be most to least likely to experience parental, marital and overall happiness. Finally, asked which occupation they would enage in out of 30 optioons (low status, average status to high status).
Results: attractive people were predicted to be happier, more succesfull and more positive personality traits. However, they were not preidcted to be better parents. Supports halo effect.
Newcomb (1961)
Used for: Cognitive approach
Aim: To test the similarity-attraction hypothesis.
Method: series of questionnaires from 17 male students in a US university
Procedure: asked to fill out a survey bout attitudes and values beforw arriving at the university. Subsequent questionnaires during the course of the semester and variables measured were attraction between students and attitude changes.
Results: first few weeks, attraction was related primarily to proximity. As semester priogressed, attraction shifted to those who most closely matched the participants attidues (58% of participnts with roommates with similar attitudes to them formed friendships, only 25% did with different attitudes).
*Conclusion**: some support for the similarity-attraction hypothesis
Evaluation: researchers were providing them with free accommodation for a semester, which increases likelihood of social desirability bias.
Moreland & Beach (1992)
Used for: Sociocultural approach, methods
Aim: To investigate the effect of mere exposure on attractiveness m faimilarity and similarity to see which factors woukd be most affected.
Method: field experiment - 130 undergraduate psych students (mixed gender)
Procedure: 4 women posed as students and attended a different number of lectors (randomly assigned) which ranged from 0 to 15. Every time they attended, they arrived. Afew minutes before class began, walked slowly downt oward the front and sat where she could be seen by all students. During the elcture, she simply listened and took notes. At the end, they walked to the back of the class slowly and left. They were not allowed to interact with the other students to create the appropriate conditions. At the end of the semester, the students were shown a slideshow of the 4 women and asked to fill out a questionnaire rating them on a 1-7 scale on attractiveness, popularity, intelligense, honesty, warmth and sucess. Also asked if they knew the women.
Results: it was found that none of the students found the women familiar. However, the mroe lectures the woman attended more positive traits attributed. This supports the mere exposrure theory and show it can be obsevred in naturalistic conditions.
evaluation: high ecological validity, not very representitive sample, the women may have had different levels of physical attractiveness (confounding variable).
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