Human Development Flashcards
Animism
Refers to children believing that nonliving objects have lifelike qualities. (Preoperational age 2-4)
When it begins to rain, a child exclaiming “the sky is pouring water on me” is an example of
Animism
Imaginary friends in a child 2-4 yrs old are an example of
Animism
Causal Reasoning “Causality”
Children believe that their thoughts can cause action, whether or not the experience have a causal relationship.
Level 1 Causal Reasoning
Reality is defined by appearance.
Level 2 Causal Reasoning
Child appeals to an all-powerful force
Level 3 Causal Reasoning
Child appeals to causes in nature
Level 4 Causal Reasoning
Child now approaches an adult explanation
A 3-year-old says “When I move along, the clouds move along too”
Reality is defined by appearance
A 5-year-old says “God moves the clouds”
Child appeals to an all-powerful force
A 7-year-old says “The sun moves the clouds”
Child appeals to causes in nature
A 10-year-old says “The clouds move because of wind currents”
Child now approaches an adult explanation
Centration (preoperational)
The tendency for a child to focus on only one piece of information at a time while disregarding all others.
A child is playing outside on a swing when his mother decides to bring him for a nap. The child becomes upset because all he can focus on is riding the swing.
Centration
Egocentrism (preoperational)
Until about age 5, young children cannot differentiate between their own perspectives and feelings, and someone else’s.
Equilibrium
Development is motivated by the search for a stable balance toward effective adaptions.
Three phases of equilibrium
- Children begin in a state of balance
- Thought changes and conflict emerges
- Through the process of assimilation and accommodation, a more sophisticated mode of thought surfaces.
Irreversibility (preoperational)
Children make errors in their thinking because they cannot understand that an operation moves in more than one direction and the original state can be recovered.
If Emma plays with a ball of clay, she believes that the clay must always be in this same form to remain the same amount. When a classmate plays with the clay and gives it back as a long, narrow piece, Emma thinks she’s getting back less.
Irreversibility.
Metacognition (concrete operations)
A child’s awareness of knowing about one’s own knowlege. Helps children plan their own problem-solving strategies.
A child who is thinking about thinking.
Metacognition
Object permanence (sensorimotor)
Recognition that objects and events continue to exist when they are not visible. This recognition ability begins when the child is about 8 months old.
Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning (formal operations)
Done by mentally forming a logical and systematic plan to work out the right solution after considering all the possible outcomes.
The ability to form ideas about “what might be”
Hypothetical-deductive reasoning
Inductive Reasoning (concrete operations)
Drawing conclusions from specific examples to make a general conclusion, even when the conclusion is not accurate.
Transductive Reasoning (preoperational)
Children mentally connect specific experiences, whether or not there is a logical causal relationship.
Bill was mean to his little sister. His sister got sick. Bill reasoned that he made his sister sick.
Transductive Reasoning
Piaget’s preoperational period
suggests that development of symbolic thought and imagination is boundless.
At what age do children begin to ask “why questions”
around age 5
At what period are children known for loving to hear stories, sing songs, and recite nursery rhymes.
Preoperational period (2 through 7 years)
Preoperational Period Age
2 through 7 years
Concrete Operations Period
marked by the child’s ability to solve simple problems while thinking about multiple dimensions of information.
At what period are children known for metacognition, trial-and-error has a clear sense of seriation, transitivity, reversibility, and conservation.
Concrete Operations Period (7 through 11 years)
Concrete Operations Period Age
7 through 11 years
Formal Operations Period
The mental transformations experienced during adolescence are logical and continue to progress beyond the skills developed during childhood.
Marked by the adolescents ability to reason abstractly and solve complex problems, thus expanding possibilities for understanding the world.
Formal Operations Period
Characteristics: Infant’s physical response to immediate surroundings
Sensorimotor Period
Characteristics: Egocentric- Focus on symbolic throught and imagination
Preoperational Period
Characteristics: Mastery of conservation- the child begins to think logically.
Concrete Operations Period
Characteristics: Thinking based on abstract principles.
Formal Operations Period
Assimilation
children incorporate new information with existing schemees in order to form a new cognitive structure.
A preschool child calls a lion “doggie” because the child only knows one type of four-legged animal.
Assimilation
Accommodation
occurs when children take existing schemes and adjust them to fit their experience.
A preschool child plays with the keys on a piano to hear the different sounds of musical notes. When he tries this with an electric keyboard, he quickly learns that the keyboard must be turned on before it can be played.
Accomodation
Piaget’s two fundamental cognitive concepts as children move from state to stage
Assimilation and accomodation
Conservation
a conceptual tool that allows a child to recognize that when altering the appearaance of an object, the basic properties do not change.
Piaget used this concept when referring to numbers, volumes, weights, and matter.
Conservation
Piaget named four stages of cognitive development
sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operations, and formal operations.
His theory proposes that cognitive development begins with a child’s innate ability to adapt to the environment, and that development is a result of the child’s interface with the physical world, social experiences and physical maturation
Swiss psychologist, Jean Piaget
Schemes/Schemas
are the way children mentally represent and organize the world.
Seriation (concrete operation)
ability to arrange objects in logical progression.
Symbolic Function Substage
the child uses words and images (symbols) to form mental representation
Transitive Inference (concrete operation)
the ability to draw conclusions about a relationship between two objects by knowing the relationship to the third object.
Morality
an internalized set of subjctive rules influcning the feelings, thoughts, and behaviors of an individual in deciding what is right and wrong.
Piaget’s two stages of cognitive development
morality of constraint and morality of cooperation
Morality of Constraint (Heteronomous)
Children see their moral world through the eyes of justice and rules, which are unchangeable. Age 4 to 7.
Morality of Cooperation (Autonomous)
Children view each dilemma and consider the consequences before making a moral decison.
Lawrence Kohlberg’s theory of moral development
sequential stages that individuals pass through while gradually becoming mature in their moraal reasoning.
Kohlberg’s Developmental Stages of Moral Judgement
Preconvential (level 1), Conventional (Level II), Postconventional (Level III)
Level 1: Preconventional
at this level of morality, children judge morality strictly on the basis of consequences.
Age range for preconventional
4-10 years old
Level 2: Conventional
at this stage want to please and help others, while developing their own internal idea of wat it means to be a good person.
Level 3: Postconventional
Morality is judged in terms of abstract principles and not by existing rules that govern society. Moral and ehtical choices rise above the lwas of society, and indivudlas look within themselves for the answers rather than basing moral deccisions on external sourcces of authority.
Age range of Conventional Stage
10-13 years old
Age range of Postconventional Stage
13-years old to adult
Intelligence
is an individual’s general mental abilities (g factor) including reasining, problem solving, knowledge, memory, and successful adaption to the environment
A collection of abilities that allow the children to learn, think, experience, and asapt to new situations in the world.
Intelligence
IQ
a score on intelligence test
Stanford-Binet Intellifence Scales (SB-5)
It is used to measure patterns and levels of cognitive development, including verbal, nonverbal, quantitative, and memory.
Wechsker Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)
is used to measure verbal and performance abilities, including verbal comprehension, perpetual organization, working memory, and processing speed. Each subtest is scored separately to help pinpoints strengths and weaknesses.
Gardner’s 8 Multiple Intelligences
Linguistic-verbal ability, logical-mathematical ability, spatial ability, bolidy-kinesthetic ability, musical ability, interpersonal ability, intrapersonal ability, naturalist ability.
Linguistic-Verbal Ability
The ability to think in words and to use language to express meaning.
According to Gardner’s theory of Multiple Intelligence Poets, authors, journallists, and speakers have
linguistic-verbal ability.
Logical-Mathematical ability
The ability to carry out mathematical operations
According to Gardner’s theory of Multiple Intelligence scientists, engineers, and accountants have
logical-mathematical ability
Spatial Ability
The ability to think three dimensionally
According to Gardner’s theory of Multiple Intelligence architects, artists, and engineers have
spatial ability
Bodily-Kinesthetic Ability
The ability to solve problems using the body and physical skill
According to Gardner’s theory of Multiple Intelligence surgeons, dancers, athletes, and craftspeople have
Bodily-Kinesthetic Ability
Musical Ability
Having a sensitivty to pitch, melody, rhythm, and tone
According to Gardner’s theory of Multiple Intelligence composers, musicians, and sensitive listeners have
Musical Ability
Interpersonal Ability
The ability to understand others, a people person who has good conversation skills and knows how to interact with others
Intrapersonal Ability
The ability to understand oneself and effectively direct one’s life
Naturalist Ability
The ability to observe pattersn in nature and understand natural and human-made systems
According to Gardner’s theory of Multiple Intelligence teachers, mental health professionals, salespeople, and politicians have
Interpersonal Ability
According to Gardner’s theory of Multiple Intelligence theologicans and psychologists have
Intrapersonal Ability
According to Gardner’s theory of Multiple Intelligence farmers, botanist, ecologist, and landscapers have
Naturalist Ability
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
states that people who are intelligent possess a high level of common sensse and ahev the ability to succeed according to their personal definiton of success, within the limits of their culture and society.
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence 3 componenets
Analytical (componential), Creative (experiential), Practical (contextual)
Analytical (Componential)
Measures memory, critical thinking and problem solving
Creative (experiential)
The ability to create, design, imagine, or invent.
Practical (contextual)
focuses on the ability to use, apply, implement, and put something into practice.
Visual-Perceptual Disability (Dyslexia)
see letters and numbers in different positions. When reading, they may confuse right or left, and they may skip or reverse words.
Auditory-Perceptual Disability (Hearing Difficulty)
may find it difficult to distinguish between the differences in sounds. Sometimes even subtle disabilities in hearing may prevent the child from understanding the full content of classroom material.
Attention and Hyperactivity Disorders
show symptoms of both inattention and hyperactivity. Children with a hyperctivity or attention disability may consistently show one or more of the following behaviors: 1) have a difficult time paying attention. 2) are easily distracted 3) show hyperacticity 4) become frustrated easily. 5) have difficulty controlling muscle or motor acticity 6) have diffivulty stayinh tasks 6_ have inapporopriate hyperactivity.
Educationally Delayed
subnormal cognitive functioning at an IQ level of 70 or below. Show maladaptive behavion in learning. Causes… dug/alcohol abuse, environmental deprivation, trauma, ,
Individuals with Disability Education Act (IDEA) guarantees
a free, appropriate public education.
An individualized education plan (IEP)
a plan designed for children with Learning Disabilities (LD). Since many children have difficulty processing information, teachers should consider using methods of instruction that communicate to al parts of the child’s senses.
Dividing classroom assignments into “smaller tasks”
helps children feel a sense of smaller accomplishments
Positive reinforcement should be paired with
demonstrating and modeling appropriate behavior
John Watson’s Classical Conditioning
believed that psychology should primarily be scientific observable behavior. He is remembered for his research on the conditioning process, as well as the Little Albert experiment, in which he demonstrated that a child could be conditioned to fear a previously neutral stimulus. His research also revealed that this fear could be generalized to other similar objects
Little Albert Experiment
John Watson and a graduate assistant named Rosalie Rayner conditioned a small child to fear a white rat. They accomplished this by repeatedly pairing the white rat with a loud, frightening clanging noise. They were also able to demonstrate that this fear could be generalized to other white, furry objects. The ethics of the experiment are often criticized today, especially because the child’s fear was never deconditioned.
BF Skinner’s Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an individual makes an association between a particular behavior and a consequence
Law of Effect
Reinforcement. Behavior which is reinforced tends to be repeated (i.e., strengthened); behavior which is not reinforced tends to die out-or be extinguished (i.e., weakened).
Neutral operants
responses from the environment that neither increase nor decrease the probability of a behavior being repeated
Reinforcers
Responses from the environment that increase the probability of a behavior being repeated. Reinforcers can be either positive or negative.
Punishers
Responses from the environment that decrease the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. Punishment weakens behavior.
Behavior modification
in the classroom as a learning tool (altering the environment or situation to produce a more favorable outcome)
Teachers can reinforce positive behavior
to produce subsequent desirable behaviors (e.g., positive feedback, praise, or gold stars) and not reinforce undesirable behaviors.
Erikson’s 5 Psychosocial Stages of Development
Basic trust vs mistrust, aautonomy vs shame and doubt, initaitive vs guilt, industry vs inferiority, and identity vs role confusion
Stage 1: Basic trust vs mistrust (1.5 years old)
The basic experience of interacting with an attentitve caregiver, gives the infant a lifelong feeling of security and predictability. The absence of trust can result in leaving the infant feeling suspicious, guarded, and withdrawn from relationships.
Stage 2: Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt (1.5-3.5 yrs old)
The toddler learns how to explore, experiment, make mistakes, and test limits in order to gain a sense of independence and self-reliance. If autonomy is inhibited or punishment is harshly inflicted, the toddler may feel a sense of shame.
Stage 3: Initiative vs Guilt (3.5-6 yrs old) w/initiative
building upon the successes from the previous stages, children at this age feel free to try out new activities and assume greater responsibility for their bodies and their behaviors. gives confidence to their decision-making ability, and imparts a willingness to take risks.
Stage 3: Initiative vs Guilt (3.5-6 yrs old) w/out initiative
The absence of initiative may leave the child feeling a sense of guilt, sometimes about almost anything. The child may feel like anything he does may disappoint the people around him.
Stage 4: Industry vs Inferiority (6-12 yrs old)
industry refers to children learning to work with others while developing skills and feeling a sense of achievement. If inferiority outweighs industry, low self-esteem may result.
Stage 5: Identity vs Role Confusion (12-18 years old)
Snse of self is interpreted as unique from othersand instills an identity that is communicated as an inner confidence and sense of one’s place in the world.
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
the distance between a child’s actual performance and a child’s potential performance. ZPD represents the amount of learning possible by a student given the proper instructional conditions.
Scaffolding
1) the use of mediators for learning, 2) the emphasis of language and shared activity for learning, and 3) shared activity, which strongly improves the child’s problem-solving abilities
Vgotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
proposed that at the center of achild’s cognitive development is shared system of surrounding social, cultural, and historical influences. Every function in the child’s cultural development appears twice- first between people and then internally within the child.
Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
emphasizes the value of learning through observation. This theory stresses the importance of observationg and modeling the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others to advance in learning.
Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiment
quiet well-behaved preschool children observed an adult who repeatedly punched and knocked down an inflated doll. Later children imitated this aggressive behavior in the classroom.
Secure Attachment
show little distress when separated, comfortable with others, make appropriate eye contact, can ask for help, and can manage and express their feelings.
Insecure: Avoidant Attachment
parents of avoidant infants may ignore, reject, or become easily irritateed with their children. Children may feel undeserving of affection, that others can’t help, have feelings of rejection, or may exhibit disruptive or noncompliant behavior
Insecure: Resistant or Ambivalent Attachment
Parents of res/ambivalence children infants become anxious before the caregiver leaves and are upset during the carefiver’s absence. They may become demanding, impulsive, and resort to creative distractions to seek attention.
Insecure: Disorganized or Disoriented Attachment
parents of disorganized-disoriented infants often demonstrate an ability to manage their own emotions and behavior (eg depression, addictions, etc.) Children often feel confused, misunderstood or become easily frustrated. They can demonstrate lack of self-control, can be inflexible, have behavior problems in school. and lack the ability to tolerate change.
Temperament
a collective set of inborn traits that help to constrct a child’s approach to the world. These traits are infleuntial in the development of personality and the way a child shows emotional responses.
The “easy” child
is generally in a positive mood and adapts easily to new situations
The “Difficult” child
tends to cry frequently and is slow to accept change to new situations. This child has irregular daily routines.
The “slow-to-warm-up” child
shows slow adaptions to new situations, but slowly accepts new situations when repeatedly exposed.
Temperament is based upon
the child’s mood, environment, activity, and threshold for reacting to stimulation.
3 types of temperament
easy, difficult, slow-to-warm-up
Play as a social activity
critical cognitive advancement in children. Play can help children release physical energy, gain mastery over their bodies, acquire new motor skills, form better relationships among peers, try out new social rules, advance cognitive development, and practice and explore new competencies.
Functional Play
begins during infancy with sensorimotor movements manipulating objects in order to receive pleasure. Repeating muscular movements.
Constructive Play
Toddler and preschoolders use objects to make something (eg building blocks), combining sensorimotor movements and the creation (construction) of something
Pretend or Imaginative Play
Imagination begins at about 18 months and is boundless during preschool years. Children transorm symbols into make-believe play.
Rough-and-Tumble Play
begins about the end of earlychildhood, but is most popular during middle childhood. Tag, wrestling, etc.
Games with Rules Play
often play during elementary school. Often include rules and are compettiive and pleasurable. Preschool children play games, but their games are more in terms of taking turns.
