Human Development Flashcards
What is Developmental Psychology?
The study of how behavior and mental processes change over time and the factors influencing those changes.
Nature
Genetic inherintance
Nurture
Environment and experiences
Maturation
The unfolding of genetic development in a specific sequence and timeframe.
Epigenitics
Changes in gene expression independent of DNA sequence.
Cross-sectional design
Compares groups of different ages at a single time point.
- Advantages: Quick and cost-effective.
- Disadvantages: Can’t track individual changes over time.
Longitudinal design
Studies the same group of individuals over multiple time points.
- Advantages: Track developmental changes.
- Disadvantages: Expensive and time-consuming.
Cohort-sequential design
Combines cross-sectional and longitudinal methods to examine developmental changes across multiple cohorts.
Stages of Prenatal Development
- Germinal Stage (0-2 weeks)
- Embryonic Stage (3-8 week)
- Fetal Stage (8 week - birth)
Germinal Stage (0-2 weeks)
Egg leaves the ovary, fertilized in the fallopian tube (zygote). Travels to the uterus for implantation.
Embryonic Stage (3-8 week)
Major organs develop. Vulnerable to teratogens.
Fetal Stage (8 week - birth)
Rapid growth and maturation.
Teratogens
Substances causing prenatal harm (e.g, alcohol, drugs, diseases)
Genes
Basic building blocks of our biological inheritance.
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
Molecules in which genetic information is enclosed.
Chromosomes
Strands of DNA, 46 in total.
Genotype
Genetic makeup of an individual.
Phenotype
Observable characteristics resulting from genotype and environment.
Allele
Variation of gene.
Homozygous
Having both parents contribute the same genetic material for a particular trait.
Heterozygous
Having parents contribute two different alleles to offspring.
Dominant Traits
A trait that is expressed in a phenotype, no matter whether the genotype is homozygous or heterozygous for the trait.
Recessive Traits
A trait that is only expressed if a person carries the same two genetic alleles.
Condominance
What occurs when, in a heterozygous combination of alleles, both traits expressed in the phenotype
Discrete Trait
A trait that results as the product of a single gene pairing.
Polygenic Trait
A trait that manifests as the result of the contributions of multiple genes.
Proximodistal
Growth from the inside out
Cephalocaudal
Growth from top to bottom
Differentiation
Ability to make smooth movements
Synapses
Point where information is transmitted between two neurons.
Synaptic pruning
Loss of unnecessary neural connections.
Myelination
Fatty deposits enhance neural efficciency.
Sensory Development
Taste, smell and touch
Highly developed at birth.
Sensory Development
Hearing
Less mature.
Sensory Development
Vision
Least developed sense.
Reflexes
Programmed physical reactions to certain cues that do not require any conscious thought to perform.
Information-processing Theory
How children learn, remember, organize, and use information from their environment.
Theory of Mind
An awareness of one’s own mental states and the mental states of others.
Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years)
Learning through sensory experiences (taste and touch).
Object Permanence
An infant’s realization that objects continue to exist even when they are outside of immediate sensory awareness.
Preoperational Stage (2–7 years)
Children begin to develop ideas of objects in the external world and the ability to work with them in their mind.
Egocentrism
Difficulty to understand other’s perspectives.
Conservation
The understanding that certain properties of an object remain the same despite changes in the object’s outward appearance.
Concrete Operational Stage (7-12 years)
Children are able to talk about complex relationships, such as categorization and cause and effect, but are still limited to understanding ideas in terms of real-world relationships.
Operations
Children’s ability to hold an idea in their mind and mentally manipulate it.
Formal Operational Stage
Children achieve hypothetical deductive reasoning and the ability to think abstractly.
Scaffolding
Devolopmental adjustment that adults make to give children the help that they need, but do not so much that they fail to move forward.
Zone of Proximal Development
The gap between what a child could accomplish alone and what the child can accomplish with help from others.
Temperament
Biologically based tendency to respond to certain situations in similar ways throughout a person’s lifetime.
Types Temperament
Easy (40%)
Cheerful, regular in routines.
Types Temperament
Difficult (10%)
Irritable and likely to have intensely negative reactions to change or new situations.
Types Temperament
Slow-to-warm-up (15%)
Less active and less responsive than babies in other categories. They tend to withdraw in the face of change, but not as sharply negative as those with a difficult temperament.
Types Temperament
Unique
Show unique blends of characteristics from the other categories.
Attachment
Babies are biologically predisposed to bond and form a relationship with a key caregiver.
Secure Attachment (60%)
Characterized by comfort and confidence in relationships. Securely attached individuals feel safe exploring their environment and rely on caregivers for reassurance.
Anxious/Avoidant Attachment (15%)
Marked by a tendency to avoid closeness and dependency. These individuals may suppress emotions and struggle to form deep connections.
Anxious/Ambivalent Attachment (10%)
Demonstrates a strong desire for closeness paired with fear of abandonment. These individuals may be overly dependent on caregivers and display clingy behavior.
Disorganized Attachment (15%)
Reflects a lack of clear strategy for managing relationships, often stemming from fear or confusion. This attachment style is commonly associated with inconsistent or traumatic caregiving.
Parenting Styles
Authoritative
Warm and responsive.
Parenting Styles
Authoritarian
Strict and punitive.
Parenting Styles
Permisive
Indulgent and lenient.
Parenting Styles
Uninvolved
Detached and neglectful.
Reciprocal Socialization
The transactional relationship between parents and child.
Puberty
Development of full sexual maturity during adolescence.
Primary Sex Characteristics
Changes in body structure that occur during puberty that have to do specifically with the reproductive system, including the growth of the testes and the ovaries.
Secondary Sex Characteristics
Changes that occur during puberty and that differ according to gender but aren’t directly related to sex.
Kohlberg’s Theory
Proposed that moral reasoning develops through a series of stages grouped into three levels.
Preconventional Level
Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment
Morality is determined by avoiding punishment. Actions are judged based on their immediate consequences.
Preconventional Level
Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange
Recognizes that others have different perspectives. Right actions are those that satisfy individual needs or involve reciprocal exchanges.
Conventional Level
Stage 3: Good Interpersonal Relationships
Morality is guided by social approval and maintaining relationships. Emphasis is placed on being “good” in the eyes of others.
Conventional Level
Stage 4: Maintaining Social Order
Morality is defined by obeying laws and fulfilling one’s duties to maintain societal order.
Postconventional Level
Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual Rights
Recognizes that laws and rules are based on social agreements and can be changed for the greater good. Emphasis is placed on individual rights and social welfare.
Postconventional Level
Stage 6: Universal Ethnical Principles
Morality is guided by self-chosen ethical principles that apply universally, such as justice and equality. These principles may transcend laws when laws conflict with universal rights.
Erickson’s Stages
Proposed a theory of development that stretches across the lifespan and incorporates various dilemmas that need to be successfully reconciled for development to stay on track.
Erickson’s Stages
Stage 1: Trust vs. mistrust (birth - age 1)
Infants develop a basic trust in others. If their needs are not met by their caregivers, mistrust develops.
Erickson’s Stages
Stage 2: Autonomy vs shame and doubt (ages 1–3)
Children exercise their new motor and mental skills. If caregivers are encouraging, children develop a sense of autonomy versus shame and doubt.
Erickson’s Stages
Stage 3: Initiative vs guilt (ages 3-6)
Children enjoy initiating activities and mastering tasks. Supportive caregivers promote feelings of power and self-confidence.
Erickson’s Stages
Stage 4: Industry vs inferiority (ages 6-12)
Children learn productive skills and develop the capacity to work with others; if not, they feel inferior.
Erickson’s Stages
Stage 5: Indentity vs role confucion (ages 12-20)
Adolescents seek to develop a satisfying identity and a sense of their role in society. Failure may lead to a lack of stable identity and confusion about their adult roles.
Erickson’s Stages
Stage 6: Intimacy vs isolation (ages 20-30)
Young adults work to establish intimate relationships with others; if they cannot, they face isolation.
Erickson’s Stages
Stage 7: Genetativity vs self-absorption
Middle-aged adults seek ways to influence the welfare of the next generation. If they fail, they may become self-absorbed.
Erickson’s Stages
Stage 8: Integrity vs dispair (ages 65+)
Older people reflect on the lives they have lived. If they do not feel a sense of accomplishment and satisfaction with their lives, they live in fear of death.
Cellular Clock Theory
Theory suggests that we age because our cells have built-in limits on their ability to reproduce.
Wear-and-Tear Theory
It suggests that we age because use of our body wears it out.
Free-Radical Theory
It suggests that we age because special negatively charged oxygen molecules become more prevalent in our body as we get older, destabilizing cellular structures and causing the effects of aging.
