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Higher Human Biology > Human Cells > Flashcards

Human Cells Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What is a somatic cell

A

Any cell in the body other than those involved in reproduction

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2
Q

What are germline cells

A

Gametes (sperm and ova)

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3
Q

What processes do germline cells divide by

A

Mitosis and meiosis

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4
Q

What is cellular differentiation

A

Process by which a cell expresses certain genes to produce protein characteristics for that cell type

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5
Q

Unspecialised cells that can reproduce or differentiate

A

Stem cells

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6
Q

What is the difference between tissue stem cells and embryonic stem cells

A
  • Embryonic stem cells can differentiate into all cell types
  • tissue stem cells can differentiate into cell types found in that type of tisssue
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7
Q

All the genes in the cell have the potential to be switched on

A

Pluripotent

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8
Q

Name a therapeutic use of stem cells

A
  • corneal repair
  • regeneration of damaged skin
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9
Q

Located in bone marrow and can give rise to blood cells, platelets, phagocytes and lymphocytes

A

Blood stem cells

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10
Q

Name a research use of stem cells

A
  • used as model cells to study how diseases develop and drug testing
  • provide info on how cell processes work
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11
Q

What are cancer cells

A

Cells that divide excessively because they do not respond to normal regulatory signals

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12
Q

How does a secondary tumour form

A

Cells within a tumour fail to attach to each other and spread throughout the body

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13
Q

What is a DNA nucleotide comprised of

A

Deoxyribose sugar, phosphate, base

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14
Q

What’s are DNA strands described as being

A

Anti parallel

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15
Q

What holds complementary bases together

A

Hydrogen bonds

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16
Q

Why is DNA replication important

A

It occurs prior to cell division so each new daughter cells receives a complete copy of all the genes

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17
Q

What end of the leading DNA strand does the primer attach to

A

3’

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18
Q

How is the leading strand replicated

A

Continuously

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19
Q

What is the role of DNA polymerase

A

To add free complementary nucleotides to the 3’ end of the growing DNA strand

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20
Q

Why do several primers attach along the lagging strand

A

Because the 3’ end of the lagging strand is not yet unravelled

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21
Q

What is the role of Ligase

A

To join the fragments of DNA on the lagging strand together

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22
Q

What type of replication does the lagging strand show

A

Discontinuous

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23
Q

What does PCR do

A

Amplifies a target DNA sequence by repeated cycles of heating and cooling

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24
Q

What temperature is DNA heated to during the first stage of PCR

A

92-98

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25
Q

Why is DNA heated during the first stage of PCR

A

To separate the strands

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26
Q

What temperature is DNA cooled to during the second stage of PCR

A

50-60

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27
Q

What does the cooling of the DNA strands do during PCR

A

Allows primers to bind to target sequence

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28
Q

DNA is heated to 70-80 during the 3rd stage of PCR, why

A

To allow heat tolerant DNA polymerase to replicate target sequence

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29
Q

Name a use of PCR

A
  • solve crimes
  • settle paternity suits
  • diagnose genetic disorders
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30
Q

What happens during transcription

A

A copy of the DNA strand is made

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31
Q

What happens during translation

A

Specific amino acids are carried to the ribosome to be assembled into a protein using the DNA code

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32
Q

What base replaces thymine in RNA

A

Uracil

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33
Q

Is RNA single or double stranded and what sugar does it contains

A

Single, ribose

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34
Q

RNA polymerase unwinds DNA strand and replicates it, what is this referred to as

A

The primary mRNA transcript

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35
Q

Each triplet of bases on a mRNA molecule is referred to as

A

Codon

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36
Q

What does a codon do

A

Codes for a specific amino acid

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37
Q

During RNA splicing _____ are removed

A

Introns

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38
Q

What does RNA splicing form

A

Mature mRNA transcript

39
Q

Different proteins can be expressed from one gene depending on which exons are retained, what is this called

A

Alternative RNA splicing

40
Q

How does translation begin

A

When a ribosome binds to mRNA molecule at a start codon

41
Q

What is tRNA comprised of

A

An anti codon at one end and an attachment site at the other for a specific amino acid

42
Q

What kind of structure does a tRNA molecule have

A

Folded due to complementary base pairing

43
Q

What is the role of tRNA

A

To carry a specific amino acid to the ribosome

44
Q

How is the polypeptide chain formed

A

The anti codons on the tRNA bond the complementary codons on the mRNA, translating the genetic code into a sequence of amino acids

45
Q

What bond holds amino acids together

A

Peptide

46
Q

How is the protein structure formed

A

Polypeptide chains fold

47
Q

Name the 3 single gene mutations

A

Substitution, insertion, deletion

48
Q

Substitution of one nucleotide leads to change of amino acid

A

Missense

49
Q

Substitution of nucleotide leads to premature stop codon

A

Nonsense

50
Q

Substitution of nucleotide results in exons being removed/ introns being retained

A

Splice site

51
Q

What does insertion/ deletion mutations cause

A

Frameshift

52
Q

Frameshift mutations have a massive impact on protein structure, why

A

Insertion/ deletion causes all codons and amino acids to be changed after the mutation

53
Q

What are chromosomal abnormalities

A

Large scale changes in the genetic material

54
Q

What is duplication

A

A section of DNA is added from its homologous partner

55
Q

A section of a chromosome is reversed

A

Inversion

56
Q

A section of chromosome is added to its non homologous partner

A

Translocation

57
Q

The entire hereditary information of an organism encoded in its DNA

A

Genome

58
Q

Computer programs can determine the entire sequence of ones genes

A

Genomic sequencing

59
Q

What is personal genomics

A

Analysing ones genome to predict the likelihood of developing certain diseases

60
Q

Using genome information in the choose of drugs

A

Pharmacogenetics

61
Q

Enzymes are described as being ____ to their substrate

A

Specific

62
Q

What does it mean when an enzyme is denatured

A

The shape of the active site changes so the enzyme can no longer function

63
Q

What is induced fit

A

When an enzyme changes the shape of its active site to be complementary to the substrate

64
Q

Substrate molecules have a _______ ________ for the active site

A

High affinity

65
Q

What is an anabolic reaction

A

Small molecules are built up to large ones and this requires energy

66
Q

What is a catabolic reaction

A

Large molecules are broken down into smaller molecules and this releases energy

67
Q

How do competitive inhibitors slow down a reaction

A

They bind to the active site preventing substrate from binding

68
Q

How can you reverse competitive inhibition

A

Increasing substrate concentration

69
Q

How do non competitive inhibitors work

A

They bind away from the active site and change the shape of it so substrates cannot bind

70
Q

Why can non competitive inhibition not be reversed by increasing substrate concentration

A

Because the inhibitor and substrate are not competing for the active site

71
Q

When does feedback inhibition occur

A

When the end product of a metabolic pathway reaches a critical concentration

72
Q

How does feedback inhibition work

A

The end product inhibits and earlier enzyme blocking the pathway

73
Q

What is glycolysis

A

The breakdown of 1 molecule of glucose into 2 molecules of pyruvate

74
Q

What is the energy investment phase

A

2 ATP are required for the phosphorylation of glucose and intermediates

75
Q

What happens in the energy pay off stage

A

4 ATP molecules are generated

76
Q

What happens to glucose/ intermediates during the energy pay off stage

A

They are oxidised, releasing h+ ions and electrons which are then picked up by NAD which becomes NADH

77
Q

What is phosphorylation

A

Adding a phosphate group

78
Q

Where does glycolysis take place

A

Cytoplasm

79
Q

Describe the citric acid cycle

A

Pyruvate is broken down —> to form Acetyl coA —> combines with oxaloacetate —> to form citric acid —> citrate goes through series of reactions and is gradually converted back to oxaloacetate. This releases co2 and generates ATP

80
Q

What is the role of dehydrogenase

A

To remove hydrogen ions and electrons from substrates/ intermediates and pass them to NAD —> NADH

81
Q

What is produced from each glucose molecule during the citric acid cycle (2 cycles)

A

8 NADH
2 ATP

82
Q

Where does the citric acid cycle take place

A

The matrix of the mitochondria

83
Q

Which stages of cellular respiration require oxygen

A

Stage 2 & 3

84
Q

Which stage produces the most ATP

A

Electron transport chain

85
Q

During ETC NADH arrives at the inner membrane and releases ______ and _______

A

Hydrogen ions and electrons

86
Q

During ETC, electrons are passed along ______ ______

A

Carrier proteins

87
Q

During ETC, energy from the electrons are used to

A

Force the hydrogen ions across the inner membrane via the protein channels

88
Q

During ETC, hydrogen ions flow back through ___ _______ generating lots of ATP

A

ATP synthase

89
Q

During ETC, hydrogen ions and electrons combine with oxygen to produce ____

A

Water

90
Q

During ETC oxygen is described as being

A

The final acceptor of hydrogen

91
Q

What happens if muscle cells do not receive sufficient oxygen

A

Pyruvate is converted to lactate

92
Q

What is used to produce lactate

A

The hydrogen ions and electrons produced during glycolysis

93
Q

When pyruvate is converted to lactate what is regenerated

A

NAD allowing it to go back through glycolysis

94
Q

What happens once oxygen debt is repaid

A

Lactate is converted back to pyruvate

Higher Human Biology (3 decks)

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