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Human Cells Flashcards

1
Q

What is a somatic cell

A

Any cell in the body other than those involved in reproduction

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2
Q

What are germline cells

A

Gametes (sperm and ova)

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3
Q

What processes do germline cells divide by

A

Mitosis and meiosis

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4
Q

What is cellular differentiation

A

Process by which a cell expresses certain genes to produce protein characteristics for that cell type

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5
Q

Unspecialised cells that can reproduce or differentiate

A

Stem cells

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6
Q

What is the difference between tissue stem cells and embryonic stem cells

A
  • Embryonic stem cells can differentiate into all cell types
  • tissue stem cells can differentiate into cell types found in that type of tisssue
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7
Q

All the genes in the cell have the potential to be switched on

A

Pluripotent

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8
Q

Name a therapeutic use of stem cells

A
  • corneal repair
  • regeneration of damaged skin
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9
Q

Located in bone marrow and can give rise to blood cells, platelets, phagocytes and lymphocytes

A

Blood stem cells

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10
Q

Name a research use of stem cells

A
  • used as model cells to study how diseases develop and drug testing
  • provide info on how cell processes work
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11
Q

What are cancer cells

A

Cells that divide excessively because they do not respond to normal regulatory signals

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12
Q

How does a secondary tumour form

A

Cells within a tumour fail to attach to each other and spread throughout the body

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13
Q

What is a DNA nucleotide comprised of

A

Deoxyribose sugar, phosphate, base

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14
Q

What’s are DNA strands described as being

A

Anti parallel

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15
Q

What holds complementary bases together

A

Hydrogen bonds

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16
Q

Why is DNA replication important

A

It occurs prior to cell division so each new daughter cells receives a complete copy of all the genes

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17
Q

What end of the leading DNA strand does the primer attach to

A

3’

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18
Q

How is the leading strand replicated

A

Continuously

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19
Q

What is the role of DNA polymerase

A

To add free complementary nucleotides to the 3’ end of the growing DNA strand

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20
Q

Why do several primers attach along the lagging strand

A

Because the 3’ end of the lagging strand is not yet unravelled

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21
Q

What is the role of Ligase

A

To join the fragments of DNA on the lagging strand together

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22
Q

What type of replication does the lagging strand show

A

Discontinuous

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23
Q

What does PCR do

A

Amplifies a target DNA sequence by repeated cycles of heating and cooling

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24
Q

What temperature is DNA heated to during the first stage of PCR

A

92-98

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25
Why is DNA heated during the first stage of PCR
To separate the strands
26
What temperature is DNA cooled to during the second stage of PCR
50-60
27
What does the cooling of the DNA strands do during PCR
Allows primers to bind to target sequence
28
DNA is heated to 70-80 during the 3rd stage of PCR, why
To allow heat tolerant DNA polymerase to replicate target sequence
29
Name a use of PCR
- solve crimes - settle paternity suits - diagnose genetic disorders
30
What happens during transcription
A copy of the DNA strand is made
31
What happens during translation
Specific amino acids are carried to the ribosome to be assembled into a protein using the DNA code
32
What base replaces thymine in RNA
Uracil
33
Is RNA single or double stranded and what sugar does it contains
Single, ribose
34
RNA polymerase unwinds DNA strand and replicates it, what is this referred to as
The primary mRNA transcript
35
Each triplet of bases on a mRNA molecule is referred to as
Codon
36
What does a codon do
Codes for a specific amino acid
37
During RNA splicing _____ are removed
Introns
38
What does RNA splicing form
Mature mRNA transcript
39
Different proteins can be expressed from one gene depending on which exons are retained, what is this called
Alternative RNA splicing
40
How does translation begin
When a ribosome binds to mRNA molecule at a start codon
41
What is tRNA comprised of
An anti codon at one end and an attachment site at the other for a specific amino acid
42
What kind of structure does a tRNA molecule have
Folded due to complementary base pairing
43
What is the role of tRNA
To carry a specific amino acid to the ribosome
44
How is the polypeptide chain formed
The anti codons on the tRNA bond the complementary codons on the mRNA, translating the genetic code into a sequence of amino acids
45
What bond holds amino acids together
Peptide
46
How is the protein structure formed
Polypeptide chains fold
47
Name the 3 single gene mutations
Substitution, insertion, deletion
48
Substitution of one nucleotide leads to change of amino acid
Missense
49
Substitution of nucleotide leads to premature stop codon
Nonsense
50
Substitution of nucleotide results in exons being removed/ introns being retained
Splice site
51
What does insertion/ deletion mutations cause
Frameshift
52
Frameshift mutations have a massive impact on protein structure, why
Insertion/ deletion causes all codons and amino acids to be changed after the mutation
53
What are chromosomal abnormalities
Large scale changes in the genetic material
54
What is duplication
A section of DNA is added from its homologous partner
55
A section of a chromosome is reversed
Inversion
56
A section of chromosome is added to its non homologous partner
Translocation
57
The entire hereditary information of an organism encoded in its DNA
Genome
58
Computer programs can determine the entire sequence of ones genes
Genomic sequencing
59
What is personal genomics
Analysing ones genome to predict the likelihood of developing certain diseases
60
Using genome information in the choose of drugs
Pharmacogenetics
61
Enzymes are described as being ____ to their substrate
Specific
62
What does it mean when an enzyme is denatured
The shape of the active site changes so the enzyme can no longer function
63
What is induced fit
When an enzyme changes the shape of its active site to be complementary to the substrate
64
Substrate molecules have a _______ ________ for the active site
High affinity
65
What is an anabolic reaction
Small molecules are built up to large ones and this requires energy
66
What is a catabolic reaction
Large molecules are broken down into smaller molecules and this releases energy
67
How do competitive inhibitors slow down a reaction
They bind to the active site preventing substrate from binding
68
How can you reverse competitive inhibition
Increasing substrate concentration
69
How do non competitive inhibitors work
They bind away from the active site and change the shape of it so substrates cannot bind
70
Why can non competitive inhibition not be reversed by increasing substrate concentration
Because the inhibitor and substrate are not competing for the active site
71
When does feedback inhibition occur
When the end product of a metabolic pathway reaches a critical concentration
72
How does feedback inhibition work
The end product inhibits and earlier enzyme blocking the pathway
73
What is glycolysis
The breakdown of 1 molecule of glucose into 2 molecules of pyruvate
74
What is the energy investment phase
2 ATP are required for the phosphorylation of glucose and intermediates
75
What happens in the energy pay off stage
4 ATP molecules are generated
76
What happens to glucose/ intermediates during the energy pay off stage
They are oxidised, releasing h+ ions and electrons which are then picked up by NAD which becomes NADH
77
What is phosphorylation
Adding a phosphate group
78
Where does glycolysis take place
Cytoplasm
79
Describe the citric acid cycle
Pyruvate is broken down —> to form Acetyl coA —> combines with oxaloacetate —> to form citric acid —> citrate goes through series of reactions and is gradually converted back to oxaloacetate. This releases co2 and generates ATP
80
What is the role of dehydrogenase
To remove hydrogen ions and electrons from substrates/ intermediates and pass them to NAD —> NADH
81
What is produced from each glucose molecule during the citric acid cycle (2 cycles)
8 NADH 2 ATP
82
Where does the citric acid cycle take place
The matrix of the mitochondria
83
Which stages of cellular respiration require oxygen
Stage 2 & 3
84
Which stage produces the most ATP
Electron transport chain
85
During ETC NADH arrives at the inner membrane and releases ______ and _______
Hydrogen ions and electrons
86
During ETC, electrons are passed along ______ ______
Carrier proteins
87
During ETC, energy from the electrons are used to
Force the hydrogen ions across the inner membrane via the protein channels
88
During ETC, hydrogen ions flow back through ___ _______ generating lots of ATP
ATP synthase
89
During ETC, hydrogen ions and electrons combine with oxygen to produce ____
Water
90
During ETC oxygen is described as being
The final acceptor of hydrogen
91
What happens if muscle cells do not receive sufficient oxygen
Pyruvate is converted to lactate
92
What is used to produce lactate
The hydrogen ions and electrons produced during glycolysis
93
When pyruvate is converted to lactate what is regenerated
NAD allowing it to go back through glycolysis
94
What happens once oxygen debt is repaid
Lactate is converted back to pyruvate

Higher Human Biology (3 decks)

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