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Human Biology Flashcards

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1
Q

What is respiration?

A

Cellular respiration is a series of chemical reactions that break down glucose to produce ATP, which may be used as energy to power many reactions throughout the body.

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2
Q

What type of chemical reaction is respiration?

A

Exothermic reaction

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3
Q

Describe the features of Aerobic respiration.
Include equation, where does it take place etc;

A

Aerobic respiration takes place in the mitochondria. It takes place in the presence of oxygen.
Glucose + Oxygen > Carbon dioxide + water (+ energy)
C6H12O6+ 6O2 > 6C02 + 6H20(+ energy)

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4
Q

Describe the features of anaerobic respiration.

A

Anaerobic respiration takes place in the absence of oxygen. It happens when there is not enough oxygen for aerobic respiration. This is a short term energy supply.

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5
Q

State the formula for anaerobic respiration in animals. Also, state where it happens

A

Glucose > Lactic acid + energy.
It happens in the muscle fibers.

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6
Q

State the formula for anaerobic respiration in plants.

A

known as fermentation
forms ethanol and carbon-dioxide
Glucose -> Ethanol+Carbon Dioxide.

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7
Q

Why are the alveoli suitable for gas exchange?

A

Made up of just one layer of very thin cells which creates a really short diffusion pathway which increases the rate that carbon dioxide and oxygen can diffuse across

Has a very large surface area to allow gas exchange to take place

walls are moist which allow the gases to dissolve, increasing the rate of diffusion

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8
Q

Describe how gas exchange works.

A

The walls of the alveoli share a membrane with the capillaries. The blood in the capillaries returns to the lungs with deoxygenated blood as it has just passed around the body. THe haemoglobin within the red blood cells has given up lots of its oxygen to the tissues so it won’t have much left, creating the perfect concentration gradient.

The oxygen in the alveoli can diffuse down that gradient into the blood. Thus, creating oxygenated blood.

The remaining carbon dioxide in the capillary will be a higher concentration in the blood than the alveoli so it can easily diffuse across. Now, once in the alveoli, we can just breathe it out. This is a repetitive process.

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9
Q

What is blood made up of

A

plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets

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10
Q

What is the function of plasma?

A

The function of plasma is to take nutrients, hormones and proteins to the parts of the body that need it. Cells also put their waste products into the plasma.

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11
Q

What is the function of red blood cells?

2) What part(s) of a cell is contained in red blood cell?

A

The function of red blood cells is to carry oxygen from the lungs and deliver it to other parts of the body. Red blood cells also transport waste such as carbon dioxide back to our lungs to be exhaled, involved in gas exchange.

Contains only cytoplasm, no nucleus

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12
Q

State the two types of white blood cells

A

Phagocytes
Lymphocytes

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13
Q

What is the function of phagocytes?

2) What part(s) of a cell is contained in phagocytes?

A

Phagocytes are cells that protect the body by ingesting harmful foreign particles such as bacteria and dying cells.

cytoplasm and nucleus

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14
Q

What is the function of lymphocytes?

2) What part(s) of a cell is contained in lymphocytes?

A

Lymphocytes are responsible for antibody production, direct cell-mediated killing of virus-infected and tumor cells.

cytoplasm and nucleus

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15
Q

What is the function of the platelet?

A

The primary function of platelets is to prevent and stop bleeding. If a blood vessel is damaged, the body sends signals to the platelets which cause them to travel to the injured area. Once the platelets arrive, they clump together to form a clot that helps stop bleeding.

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16
Q

What part of the heart does the blood leave from

A

The aorta

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17
Q

What carries blood FROM the heart TO the tissues

A

Arteries

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18
Q

What carries blood TO the heart FROM the tissues

A

Veins

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19
Q

How are capillaries involved in blood flow?

A

Capillaries have thin walls that allow oxygen, nutrients, carbon dioxide and waste products to pass through, to and from the tissue cells. Veins then carry the blood back to your heart, repeating the process.

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20
Q

What is the function of arteries?

A

These strong, muscular blood vessels carry oxygenated blood from your heart to your body. They handle a large amount of force and pressure from your blood flow.

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21
Q

What is the function of veins?

A

Veins don’t carry high pressurized blood, but they do have to carry large volumes of DEOXYGENATED blood back to your heart. Thin, less elastic walls help handle high volumes and low pressure. Most veins have valves that open and close. These control blood flow and ensure blood flows in one direction.

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22
Q

What is the function of capillaries?

A

These tiny blood vessels have thin walls so oxygen and nutrients from the blood can move through the walls and tissues. Capillaries are where oxygen and nutrients are exchanged for carbon dioxide and waste.

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23
Q

Describe the function of ribs(in thorax)

A

A bone structure that protects internal organs including the Lungs

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24
Q

Describe the function of intercostal muscles

A

Muscles between the Ribs that move the ribcage during inhalation and exhalation

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25
Q

Describe the function of the Diaphragm

A

A sheet of muscle at the bottom of the Thorax that changes the thoracic volume during inhalation and exhalation

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26
Q

Describe the function of the Trachea

A

Windpipe that connects the Mouth and Nose to the Lungs

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27
Q

Describe the function of the Bronchi

A

Thick tubes that divide into two Bronchi inside the Lungs - one Bronchus for each Lung

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28
Q

Describe the function of Bronchioles

A

Bronchi will split to form thinner tubes called Bronchioles that are connected to Alveoli

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29
Q

Describe the function of Alveoli

A

Tiny air sacs where gas exchange occurs.

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30
Q

Describe the function of the pleural membrane

A

The thin, moist membrane lining the outside of Lungs for lubrication to reduce friction, sticks outside of the Lungs to the chest cavity for the Lungs to follow chest movement

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31
Q

How do intercostal muscles contribute to inhalation?
syllabus statement 2.47

A

The external intercostal muscles first contract, pulling the rib cage upwards and outwards.
The internal intercostal muscles relax and are pulled back to their elongated state.
The diaphragm contracts and flattens, pushing the abdomen walls outwards.
As a result, thoracic volume increases, causing pressure to decrease
A decrease in pressure causes air to be drawn into the lungs through inhalation.

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32
Q

How do intercostal muscles contribute to exhalation?
syllabus statement 2.47

A

External intercostal muscles relax and are pulled back to their elongated state
Internal intercostal muscles contract, pulling the rib cage downwards and inwards
The diaphragm relaxes and forms a dome shape
As a result, thoracic volume decreases, causing pressure to increase
An increase in pressure causes air to be forced out of the lungs - exhalation

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33
Q

State the effects on the air passages if someone smokes
syllabus statement 2.49

A

Tar in cigarettes destroy the Cilia therefore causing the buildup of Mucus and increasing the risk of Bronchitis

Tar in cigarettes contain carcinogens that increase risk of Lung Cancer

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34
Q

State the effects on the alveoli if someone smokes
syllabus statement 2.49

A

Tar in cigarettes break down Alveoli walls and causes them to merge together, decreasing the surface area to volume ratio for gas exchange

Insufficient gas exchange will increase the risk of Emphysema - shortness of breath due to insufficient Oxygen transport in blood

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35
Q

State the effects on the circulatory system if someone smokes
syllabus statement 2.49

A

Nicotine in cigarettes causes blood vessels to narrow, placing strain on circulatory system and results in the increase in blood pressure

Narrowing of blood vessels also causes the build-up of Fat globules, increasing risk of Coronary Heart Disease (CHD)

CHD involves the blockage of Coronary Artery by Fat globules (forming plaques), causing insufficient Oxygen transport in blood leading to increased anaerobic respiration (due to lack of Oxygen)
Increase in anaerobic respiration causes build-up of Lactic acid which creates acidic environment for enzymes to denature, hence causing strokes

Carbon Monoxide from cigarette smoking will bind irreversibly to Haemoglobin, reducing capacity of Oxygen transport by Red blood cells and hence increases the risk of Emphysema - shortness of breath due to insufficient Oxygen transport in blood

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36
Q

why simple, unicellular organisms can rely on diffusion for movement of substances in and out of the cell
syllabus statement 2.51

A

As Unicellular organisms are composed of a single cell, they have a larger surface area in relation to their volume, and hence have a large surface area to volume ratio

With a large surface area to volume ratio, Unicellular organisms therefore have efficient rate of diffusion, allowing cell to rely solely on diffusion to transport necessary substances in and out of the cell

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37
Q

Why do multicellular organisms need for a transport system?
syllabus statement 2.52

A

Multicellular organisms rely on transport systems to provide a constant supply of necessary substances through a medium to their cells via an exchange surface

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38
Q

What is the role of plasma in the transport of Carbon dioxide?
statement 2.6

A

Plasma transports waste Carbon Dioxide produced via aerobic respiration to the lungs for exhalation

39
Q

What is the role of plasma in the transport of digested food?
statement 2.6

A

Plasma transports digested food to respiring cells for assimilation in the form of simple sugars (e.g glucose) and Amino acids

40
Q

What is the role of plasma in the transport of urea?
statement 2.6

A

Plasma transports waste substances for removal out of the body - Plasma transports Urea from liver to the kidney for excretion

41
Q

What is the role of plasma in the transport of hormones?
statement 2.6

A

Plasma transports Hormones produced by Endocrine glands to target organs to stimulate change

42
Q

What is the role of plasma in the transport of heat energy?
statement 2.6

A

As Plasma is mainly composed of Water which possesses high specific heat capacity, this allows Plasma to maintain a constant body temperature optimum for enzyme activity for metabolic reactions to occur (optimum body temperature is 37°C)

43
Q

why do the red blood cells have no nucleus
statement 2.61

A

Red blood cells do not have a Nucleus to allow more space for Haemoglobin to transport Oxygen to respiring cells

44
Q

why do the red blood cells contain HAEMOGLOBIN
statement 2.61

A

Red blood cells contain Haemoglobin that combines with Oxygen to form Oxyhemoglobin to transport Oxygen to respiring cells

45
Q

Why are red blood cells small and flexible
statement 2.61

A

Red blood cells are small and flexible to squeeze through narrow capillaries and blood vessels for efficient transport

46
Q

Why do red blood cells have a thin cell membrane
statement 2.61

A

Red blood cells have thin cell membrane (one cell thick) to minimise distance of diffusion of Oxygen molecules, allowing efficient diffusion and transport of Oxygen to respiring cells

47
Q

What is the immune systems reaction to disease - lymphocytes

A

When Pathogen is detected, Lymphocyte will split into two cells
One cell will produce Antibodies that will deactivate Antigens of Pathogens
Other cell will be memory cell that remains in immune system so if same Pathogen is detected, same Antibodies can be produced in larger quantities quickly

48
Q

What is the immune systems reaction to disease - phagocytes

A

Phagocytes has sensitive cell surface membrane detects and locates Pathogen via chemicals produced
Once Pathogen is encountered, they will engulf and release digestive enzymes to digest and Pathogen
Pathogen is removed from the body

49
Q

How do vaccinations lead to anti body production to occur sooner, faster and in greater quantitity?
(TRIPLE)
2.63B understand how vaccination results in the manufacture of memory cells, which enable future antibody production to the pathogen to occur sooner, faster and in greater quantity

A
  • Vaccine contains weakened form of pathogen / bacteria / virus that is introduced into the body via injection
  • Vaccine containing antigens (foreign substance) will trigger primary immune response
  • Phagocytes with sensitive cell surface membrane will detect Pathogens to engulf and digest them via release of digestive enzymes
  • Lymphocytes will split into two cells - antibodies that deactivate Pathogen and memory cells that remain in immune system
  • Hence, when exposed to actual Pathogen, these memory cells can therefore trigger a more potent secondary immune response by dividing to produce antibodies in larger quantities more quickly

As a result, spread of disease and infections are prevented

50
Q

How are platelets involved in blood clotting?

A
  • When Skin is wounded, clotting factors are released by damaged cells and platelets
  • Clotting factors cause platelets to become sticky and adhere to damaged region to form a solid ‘plug’, also stimulating local vasoconstriction to reduce blood flow through damaged region
  • Additionally, clotting factors trigger conversion of inactive Prothrombin to activated enzyme Thrombin which catalyses the conversion fo soluble Fibrinogen into insoluble fibrous form called Fibrin
  • Fibrin forms mesh around wound and traps blood cells to form temporary clot, forming a scab to protect and allow wound to heal
51
Q

State the functions of clotting blood

A
  • Clotting prevents the excessive blood loss from body
  • Clotting prevents the entry of harmful Pathogens into bloodstream via wound
52
Q

How does the heart function?

A
  • Deoxygenated blood from respiring cells are carried by the Vena Cava to the Right Atrium
  • Right Atrium will contract to increase pressure, pushing blood into Right Ventricle through Atrioventricular Valve
  • Atrioventricular Valve closes to prevent backflow of blood from Ventricle to Atrium
    Right Ventricle will contract to increase pressure, causing blood to be carried out via Pulmonary Artery to be Oxygenated at the Lungs through the Semilunar Valve
  • Semilunar Valve closes to prevent backflow of blood from Artery to Ventricle
  • Pulmonary Vein carries Oxygenated blood from Lungs to the Left Atrium
  • Left Atrium will contract to increase pressure, pushing blood into Left Ventricle through Atrioventricular Valve
  • Atrioventricular Valve closes to prevent backflow of blood from Ventricle to Atrium
  • Left Ventricle will contract to increase pressure, causing Oxygenated blood to be carried out via Aorta to respiring cells around the body
53
Q

What is the function of semi-lunar valve?

A

Valve that prevents the backflow of blood from Artery to Ventricle

54
Q

What is the function of Atrio Ventricular Valve?

A

Valve that prevents the backflow of blood from Ventricle to Atrium

55
Q

What gland is adrenaline produced by?

2) Define adrenaline using that gland

A

Hormone produced by Adrenal Gland that increases heart rate for ‘fight or flight’ response

56
Q

Why does the heart rate change during exercise?

A
  • During exercise, more energy is needed via respiration to allow muscle contractions to occur to facilitate movement
  • Hence, heart rate will increase to allow more Oxygen transport in blood to respiring cells for movement to occur
  • If energy demand exceeds Oxygen intake, energy may be produced via anaerobic respiration, producing Lactic acid as a waste product
  • After exercise, heart rate continues to increase as extra Oxygen is needed to break down the Lactic acid produced - Oxygen debt
56
Q

Describe the effect on adrenaline on the heart rate.

A
  • During times of fear or stress, Adrenaline is produced by Adrenal glands and secreted into the bloodstream
  • As a result, Liver cells convert Glycogen into Glucose to increase blood glucose levels
  • Additionally, breathing and heart rate increases to increase blood flow
  • Hence, the increase in breathing and heart rate allows more Glucose and Oxygen to be transported in the bloodstream to respiring cells for ‘fight or flight’ response to occur
57
Q

State the factors that increase risk of coronary heart disease

A

Poor diet, stress, smoking

58
Q

Why does having a poor diet increase risk of coronary heart disease?

A

Diets rich in saturated fats, salts and alcohol increases the presence of cholesterol in diet therefore increasing the risk of coronary heart disease.

59
Q

Why does having stress increase risk of coronary heart disease?

A

Stress stimulates the secretion of hormones that increases blood pressure, therefore increasing the risk of the build up of fatty plaques to cause coronary heart disease.

60
Q

Why does smoking increase the risk of coronary heart disease

A

Nicotine in cigarettes cause the narrowing of blood vessels increasing the build up of fatty plaques to cause coronary heart disease.

61
Q

State the main blood vessels going TOWARDS the heart

A

vena cava, pulmonary vein

62
Q

State the main blood vessels going AWAY from the heart

A

Aorta, pulmonary artery

63
Q

State the main blood vessel going TOWARDS the lungs

A

pulmonary artery

64
Q

State the main blood vessel going AWAY from the lungs

A

pulmonary vein

65
Q

State the main blood vessel going TOWARDS the liver

A

hepatic artery

66
Q

State the main blood vessel going AWAY from the liver

A

hepatic vein

67
Q

State the main blood vessel going TOWARDS the kidney

A

Renal artery

68
Q

Define excretion

A

The removal of waste products of metabolism from the body.

69
Q

State the main blood vessel going AWAY from the kidney

A

renal vein

70
Q

What does the lung mainly excrete and how

A

The lung mainly excretes carbon dioxide. It excretes this as a waste product of Aerobic respiration via exhalation

71
Q

What does the kidney mainly excrete and how

A

Excess water, salts and urea. It excretes this through osmoregulation

72
Q

What does the skin mainly excrete and how

A

The skin mainly excretes excess water and salts through the sweat glands of skin by producing sweat.

73
Q

Describe the role of the Kidney in excretion.

A
  • Renal artery transports blood within the bowman’s capsule under high pressure
  • blood is filtered at high pressure, composed of water, glucose, salts and urea.
  • However, as proteins and red blood cells are too big to be filtered through base membrane, they will remain in blood.
74
Q

How is glucose reabsorbed?

A

Glucose is reabsorbed back into surrounding capillaries - selective reabsorption.

75
Q

How is water reabsorbed?

A

Water may be absorbed back into the blood by the collecting duct depending on levels of ADH secreted by pituitary gland.

76
Q

After selective reabsorption, what happens to the remaining liquid?

A

The remaining liquid containing excess water, salts and urea are transported via the ureter to the bladder to be stored for excretion.

77
Q

Describe the role of the Kidney when the body has low water level.

A

-Hypothalamus detects low levels of water in the body, stimulating pituitary gland to secrete more ADH.
-This increase in ADH causes membrane of collecting duct to become more permeable therefore increasing the reabsorption of water into the blood capillaries via osmosis.
- as more water is reabsorbed, water levels in the body is regulated and returned to normal.
- as a result, volume of urine will decrease and become more concentrated.

78
Q

Describe the role of kidney when the body has a higher water level

A

-Hypothalamus detects high levels of water in the body, stimulating pituitary gland to secrete less ADH
- The decrease in ADH results in the membrane of collecting duct to become less permeable therefore decreasing the reabsorption of water in the blood capillaries via osmosis
- as less water is reabsorbed, water levels in the body is regulated and are returned to normal
- as a result, volume of urine will increase and becoming less concentrated(more diluted)

79
Q

State the function of the renal artery in the kidney

A

Carries oxygenated blood to the kidney for ultrafilteration

80
Q

State the function of the kidney

A

A pair of bean shaped organs that carry out filtration to remove waste products from the body via excretion

81
Q

State the function of the ureter

A

Tube that transports urine from kidney to bladder for storage prior to excretion

82
Q

State the function of the bladder

A

organ that stores urine produced by kidney for excretion

83
Q

State the function of urethra

A

Tube that connects bladder to the exterior for removal of urine from body via excretion.

84
Q

State the structure of the bowman’s capsule

A

Cup-shaded sac that collects Glomerular filtrate for entry into tubules for filtration

85
Q

State the structure/function of the glomerulus

A

Tuft of blood capillaries that filters blood under high pressure to produce glomerular filtrate composed of water, glucose, salts and urea

86
Q

State the structure/function of convoluted tubules

A

Portion of nephron that includes the proximal convoluted tubules and distal convoluted tubules to carry out selective reabsorption of glucose into blood capillaries

87
Q

State the structure/function of loop of henle

A

U-shaped portion of nephron that filters out salts to maintain water concentration in body

88
Q

State the structure/function of collecting duct

A

Long narrow tube that reabsorbs water to maintain water balance in body depending on levels of ADH produced

89
Q

Describe the process of ultrafiltration

A

Renal Artery transports Oxygenated blood to the Glomerulus within the Bowman’s Capsule under high pressure
High hydrostatic pressure is due to the wider afferent arteriole transporting blood to the Bowman’s Capsule, and narrow efferent arteriole transporting blood out of Capsule
Blood is therefore filtered at high pressure to produce Glomerular Filtrate composed of Water, Glucose, Salts and Urea
However, as Proteins and Red blood cells are too large to be filtered through base membrane - material between Glomerulus and Bowman’s Capsule, they will remain in blood

90
Q

State the components of GLOMERULAR FILTRATE

A

Water, Urea, Glucose, Salt

91
Q

Why does selective reabsorption happen for glucose?

A

Renal Artery transports Oxygenated blood to the Glomerulus within Bowman’s Capsule under high pressure for ultrafiltration, producing Glomerular Filtrate composed of Water, Glucose, Salts and Urea
Glomerular Filtrate enters the Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT), where all Glucose is reabsorbed into surrounding capillaries via selective reabsorption

Nephron is adapted by having large quantities of Mitochondria to provide energy in the form of ATP for the active transport of Glucose molecules across membrane
Nephron is adapted by having thin membranes to minimise distance of active transport, allowing efficient rate of reabsorption

92
Q

What does urine contain

A

Water, Urea and ions

Biology(Khiron) (4 decks)

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