HUB Paper 2 Flashcards
Blood Types
- O: Universal Donor
- A: N-acetylglucosamine at antigen terminus
- B: Galactose at antigen terminus
- AB: Universal Recipient
Agglutination
Blood clumping resulting from when antibodies attack foreign antigens
Types of anti-bodies on Blood Types
- Type A: anti-B antibodies
- Type B: anti-A antibodies
- Type AB: No antibodies
- Type O: Anti-A & B antibodies
Paratope
‘Lock’ of the antibody that fits into the epitope of the antigen
Epitope
‘Key’ of the antigen that the paratope of the antibodies fits into
Rh antigen
- Homozygous recessive (only rr will have Rh- Phenotype expressed)
Fluid compartments of the body
Total Fluid Volume:
1. Intracellular Fluid (ICF) = 2/3 TFV
- Extracellular Fluid (ECF) 1/3 TFV
o Interstitial Fluid (3/4 ECF)
o Plasma (1/4 ECF)
o Transcellular Fluid
Measurement of Intracellular fluid Volume (ICFV)
TBW-ECF
Measurement of Interstitial fluid Volume (ISFV)
ECF-PV
Properties of a good tracer
- Non toxic
- Doesn’t enter any other compartment
- Not metabolised
- Easy to measure
- Amount excreted is easy to determine
Tracers for Total Body Water
- D2O
- Tritiated water
Tracers for ECF
- Manitol
- Sulfate
- Sucrose
Tracers for PV
- Evans Blue
- Radiolabeled Albumin
Osmolality
Number of dissolved particles in a solution
Osmoles/kg H2O (Osmole = number of particles irresptive of type charge or size)
Osmosis
- Movement of water down a concentration gradient from an area of lower solute concentration to an area of higher solute concentration (tries to dilute solute)
Hematopoiesis
Blood cells production
Erythropoiesis
Formation of red blood cells
Supine
Standard anatomical position of the body (spine on table looking up)
Crania
Skull
Postcranial
Below the skull
Types of motion
o Extension/Flexion
o Abduction/Adduction (snow angel vibes)
o Pronation (rotate hand so nails face ceiling)/Supination
o Rotation
Planes of reference
o Sagital (split body left to right)
o Coronal (Split body front and back)
o Transverse (Body in upper and lower parts)
Proximal
Close to midline
Distal
Away from midline
Anterior
Front
Posterior
Back
Superior
Above
Inferior
Below
Medial
Towards midline
Lateral
Away from midline
Types of joints
- Fibrous Joints
- Cartilaginous Joints
- Synovial Joints
6 Types of Synovial Joints
- Plane/Gliding (foot arch & wrist)
- Hinge (Knee, ulna & humerus)
- Ball and Socket (Shoulder girdle, hip)
- Saddle (Base of thumb, move in 2 directions)
- Pivot
- Ellipsoid
Long Bone structure
- Diaphysis
- Epiphysis
- Metaphysis
Diaphysis
Shaft of long bone
Compact bone
Medullary cavity in the middle
Epiphysis
Wide part at each end of long bone
Mostly cancellous/trabecular bone
Covered with compact bone (Cortex)
Metaphysis
Growth plate where epiphysis and diaphysis meet
2 Types of bone
- Woven bone (“quick fix”)
2. Lamellar bone
Canaliculi
Tiny channels for distribution of nutrients and removal of waste between lacuna in osteons
Trabeculae
Open network formed from the matrix in spongy bone
Periosteum
Membrane on the outside of the bone
Endosteum
Membrane on the inside of the bone, lines the medullary cavity
Bone cells
- Osteoprogenitor cells
- Osteoblasts
- Osteocytes
- Osteoclasts
Osteoprogenitor cells
Mesenchymal cells that divide to produce osteoblasts
Osteoblasts
Immature bone cells that secrete matrix compounds (Osteoid) during osteogenesis
Osteocytes
Mature bone cells that maintain the bone matrix
Osteoclasts
Giant multinucleate cells that dissolve bone matrix
5 Phases of bone remodelling
- Activation
- Resorption
- Reversal
- Formation
- Quiescence
Appositional Growth
Growth in width through an increase in circumferential lamellae
Order and number of vertebrae
- (C) Cervical (7)
- (T) Thorax (12)
- (L) Lumbar (5)
- (S) Sacral (fused 5)
Upper limb structure
- Shoulder girdle – clavicle and scapula
- Upper arm – humerus
- Lower arm – ulna and radius
- Wrist – carpals
- Hand – metacarpals
- Fingers – phalanges
Lower limb Structure
- Pelvis – Os coxae
o Ischium
o Pubis
o Ilium - Thigh – Femur
- Knee cap – Patella
- Lower leg – Tibia
- Lower leg – Fibula
- Ankle bones – tarsals
- Foot – metatarsals
- Toes – phalanges
6 Sphincters in the GIT
- Upper esophageal sphincter (mouth to esophagus)
- Lower esophageal sphincter (esophagus to stomach)
- Pyloric sphincter (stomach to Duodenum)
- Ileocecal sphincter (Small intestine to colon)
- Internal and external Anal sphincters
- Sphincters of Oddi:
4 Layers of the GIT
- Mucosa:
o Epithelilum
o Lamina Propria
o Muscular mucosal - Submucosa
- Muscularis
- Adventitia/Serosa
5 functions of Digestive System
- Ingestion
- Secretion
- Digestion
- Absorption
- Storage & Elimination
Omentum
Double layered extension or fold of peritoneum that passes from stomach to proximal part of duodenum
Peritoneum
COntinous, glistening and transparent serous membrane
Rugae
Folds and creases in the stomach that allow stretching
Stomach cell types
- Mucous
- Parietal
- Chief cells
- Entero-endocrine cells
Small intestine structure
- Enterocytes (intestinal cells)
- brush-border enzymes
o Dipeptidases & tripeptidases
o Disaccharidases
o Enterokinases
Cells of the small intestine
- Paneth cells
- Stem Cells
- Goblet Cells
- Entero-endocrine cells
- Absorptive enterocytes
- Tufts cells
Taeniae coli
- 3 longitudinal fibres running along the colon
Acini
Secretory unit of the salivary glands
- Serous acini
- Mucous acini
- Mixed acinus
Ducts of salivary gland
- Secretory units merge = intercalated ducts
- Intercalated ducts -> striated ducts
- Striated ducts -> interlobular ducts
finally to main collecting duct
Hepatocytes
Liver cells that produce bile
Liver ducts
o Left & right hepatic ducts -> common hepatic duct
o Common hepatic duct + cystic duct (to gall bladder) -> common bile duct
o Common bile duct + pancreatic duct -> Ampulla of Vater, or Hepatopancreatic duct.
Whats in pancreatic juice
o Pancreatic Amylase – breaks down polysaccharides
o Pancreatic Lipase – breaks down fats
o Peptidases – trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, procarboxypeptidase
o Also has ribonuclease and deoxyribonuclease which break down DNA & RNA
Secretin
Stims pancretic duct to secrete bicarb to lower chyme acidity
CCK
Stims acinar cells to secrete pancreatic juices
Important players in Starch/Carb digestion
- Salivary alpha-amylase cleaves alpha-1-4 glycosidic bonds
- Pancreatic alpha-amylase does same thing
- Brush border enzymes:
o Maltase hydrolyses 1-4 glycosidic bonds
o Sucrase hydrolyses alpha 1-6/4 glycosidic bonds - Sodium-Glucose Linked Transporter
Important players in Protein digestion
- HCl in stomach -> pepsin from pepsinogen
- Pepsin hydrolyses peptide bonds
- Enterokinase activates zymogens -> trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase which all hydrolyse peptide bonds
- Sodium co-transporter into enterocyte
Important players in Lipid digestion
- CCK in small intestine -> bile is released
- bile emulsifies hydrophobic fat mols
- Pancreatic lipase enzymes cleave ester bonds in glycerol backbone
- enterocytes absorb glycerol & fatty acids via diffusion
Microbiome
Collective genomes of micro organisms in a particular environment
Microbiota
Community of micro organisms
Enterotypes
Refers to presiding genus (phyla) for a particular individual. Defined by presiding genus of microbe
Commensal interactions with the host
Co-exist without harming, only one benefits though
Mutualism interactions with the host
Both organisms benefit (most of our interactions with microbes)
Parasitic interactions with the host
1 benefits, other is harmed
Dysbiosis
Imbalance in bacteria associated with disease or ‘skewing of commensal community’
Causal association of microbiome and disease
Does dysbiosis cause IBD?
Reverse causal association of microbiome and disease
Does IBD cause dysbiosis?
‘A non-relevant mechanism of another risk factor’ association of microbiome and disease
Does an unhealthy diet cause both dysbiosis and IBD?
‘An important underlying mechanism for another causal factor’ association of microbiome and disease
Does a bad diet cause dysbiosis which then causes IBD?
‘Combination of mechanisms’ association of microbiome and disease
Does a bad diet AND dysbiosis cause IBD?
Influencing factors on the microbiome
- Genetics
- Mother’s health and nutritional status
- Gestational age (premature infants have specific microbiome)
- Infant-feeding patterns
- Physical environment
- Weight loss & obesity
- Sanitary living conditions
- Dietary habits:
- Antibiotic usage and other medications
Probiotics
- Live microbes in food or supplements (Kombucha)
- Beneficial to host when administered in sufficient quantities
Prebiotics
- Non-digestible foods/ingredients
- Selectively stimulate growth of beneficial bacteria
Symbiotic
Prebiotic + Probiotic
Antibiotics
Diminishes the population of total and commensal bacteria
Secretory Diarrhoea
- Continues during fasting
- Net loss of water & electrolytes as watery stool
Osmotic Diarrhoea
- Allows rapid osmotic flow of water and ions to maintain osmotic balance between lumen and plasma
Isotonic dehydration
- Normal serum osmolality
- Losing the same amount of water and sodium
Hypertonic dehydration
- Loss of more water than sodium
- High serum osmolality
Hypotonic Dehydration
- Loss of more sodium than water
- Low serum osmolality
Metabolic pathway for Pyruvate in absence of O2
o Will convert to lactate – lactate goes to liver and kidney where its converted back to glucose(gluconeogenesis) and either stored as glycogen or released back into blood.
Cori Cycle
o Liver transforms 2 lactate mols into 1 glucose mol via pyruvate
o Taken to muscle where 1 glucose mol transform into 2 lactate mols via pyruvate
o Take back to liver and cycles
Protein Complex 1
- NADH dehydrogenase
- Oxidises NADH -> releases 2 e-
- 2H+ brought over -> ubiqionol from ubiqionone which goes to complex III
Protein Complex III
- Cytochrome C Reductase
- reduced Cytochrome C & Ubiqiunol is oxidised to release 2H+
_ Cytochrome C moves to protein complex IV
Protein Complex IV
Cytochrome C Oxidase
- Cytochrome C oxidised
Protein Complex II
Succinate Dehydrogenase
- Reduces FAD -> FADH2
- Reduces Ubiqiunone, ubiqiunol moves to complex III
Gluconeogenesis
Making new glucose from non-glucose molecules
Glycogenesis
Formation of glycogen from glucose
Glycogenolysis
Conversion of glycogen to glucose-6-phosphate
Transamination
Amine group is removed from one amino acid and added to Keto acid to form new amino acid
Oxidative Deamination
metabolic pathway that removes amine group from amino acid - leaving Keto-acid and ammonia
- Mostly Glutamate formed through transamination of amine group and alpha-ketoglutarate
Lipogenesis
Formation of fat
How many muscle in human adult
660
Functions of muscle
- Converts chem energy into force & mechanical work
- Maintains posture and body position
- Supports soft tissues
- Encircles opening of digestive and urinary tracts
- Heat production
- Reservoir for protein storage
Shapes of muscles
- Convergent
- Circular
- Multipennate
- Bipennate
- Unipennate
- Parallel
- Fusiform
Hierarchical Organisation of skeletal muscle
- Muscle
- Muscle fascicle
- Myofiber (cell)
- Myofibril (Organelle)
- Sarcomere
- Myofilament
Epimysium
Sheath around each muscle
Perimysium
Covers fascicles
Endomysium
Covers each muscle fibre
Sarcolemma
Cell membrane
Sarcoplasm
Cytoplasm
M-line (Sarcomere)
Holds thick filaments in the middle of the sarcomere
H-zone width (Sarcomere)
Corresponds to the length of thick filament that don’t overlap with thin filaments
- Middle of the A band
- Shortens during contraction
I band
- Light band of sarcomere
- Only thin (actin) filaments
- Shortens during contraction
A band
- dark band of sarcomere
- Both thin (actin) and thick (Myosin) filaments
Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
Modified smooth ER
Terminal Cisternae
Expanded portion at the end of each sarcoplasmic reticulum.
Stores Ca2+
Ryanodine Receptors
Ca2+ releasing channels in SR membrane
Transverse tubules
Populate the gap between adjacent terminal cisternae
3 isoforms of Myosin
- MHC1 (slowest contraction velocity)
- MHC2A (fastest contraction velocity)
- MHC2X
Motor unit
Smallest Functional unit of neural control of muscle contraction
Excitation-Contraction Coupling
The process by which an electrical stimulus triggers the release of Ca2+ from the SR, initiating the mechanism of muscle contraction by sarcomere shortening
Concentric contraction
Force by muscle is greater than opposing force - visible shortening of muscle
Isometric contraction
no movement of muscle, but muscle contracts (like pushing against a wall)
Eccentric contraction
Muscle lengthens while trying to contract, force of muscle is smaller than the opposing force
Summation
If the muscle is stimulated before it fully relaxes, the force produced by the second twitch will be greater than the first
Incomplete Tetanus
If we increase the frequency of stimulation the relaxation time between successive twitches will get shorter and shorter as the strength of contraction increases in amplitude.
Complete tetanus
A stimulation frequency is eventually reached where there is no visible relaxation between successive twitches
Muscle spindles
Provide sensory information about the:
- Absolute length of the muscle
- The rate of change in length
Golgi Tendon Organ
Respond to tension rather than length (Not muscle spindles)
How many ATP are produced from 1 mol of Glucose in O2?
30-32
