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HUB2019F > HUB Paper 2 > Flashcards

HUB Paper 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Blood Types

A
  • O: Universal Donor
  • A: N-acetylglucosamine at antigen terminus
  • B: Galactose at antigen terminus
  • AB: Universal Recipient
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2
Q

Agglutination

A

Blood clumping resulting from when antibodies attack foreign antigens

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3
Q

Types of anti-bodies on Blood Types

A
  • Type A: anti-B antibodies
  • Type B: anti-A antibodies
  • Type AB: No antibodies
  • Type O: Anti-A & B antibodies
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4
Q

Paratope

A

‘Lock’ of the antibody that fits into the epitope of the antigen

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5
Q

Epitope

A

‘Key’ of the antigen that the paratope of the antibodies fits into

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6
Q

Rh antigen

A
  • Homozygous recessive (only rr will have Rh- Phenotype expressed)
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7
Q

Fluid compartments of the body

A

Total Fluid Volume:
1. Intracellular Fluid (ICF) = 2/3 TFV

  1. Extracellular Fluid (ECF) 1/3 TFV
    o Interstitial Fluid (3/4 ECF)
    o Plasma (1/4 ECF)
    o Transcellular Fluid
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8
Q

Measurement of Intracellular fluid Volume (ICFV)

A

TBW-ECF

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9
Q

Measurement of Interstitial fluid Volume (ISFV)

A

ECF-PV

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10
Q

Properties of a good tracer

A
  • Non toxic
  • Doesn’t enter any other compartment
  • Not metabolised
  • Easy to measure
  • Amount excreted is easy to determine
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11
Q

Tracers for Total Body Water

A
  • D2O

- Tritiated water

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12
Q

Tracers for ECF

A
  • Manitol
  • Sulfate
  • Sucrose
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13
Q

Tracers for PV

A
  • Evans Blue

- Radiolabeled Albumin

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14
Q

Osmolality

A

Number of dissolved particles in a solution

Osmoles/kg H2O (Osmole = number of particles irresptive of type charge or size)

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15
Q

Osmosis

A
  • Movement of water down a concentration gradient from an area of lower solute concentration to an area of higher solute concentration (tries to dilute solute)
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16
Q

Hematopoiesis

A

Blood cells production

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17
Q

Erythropoiesis

A

Formation of red blood cells

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18
Q

Supine

A

Standard anatomical position of the body (spine on table looking up)

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19
Q

Crania

A

Skull

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20
Q

Postcranial

A

Below the skull

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21
Q

Types of motion

A

o Extension/Flexion

o Abduction/Adduction (snow angel vibes)

o Pronation (rotate hand so nails face ceiling)/Supination

o Rotation

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22
Q

Planes of reference

A

o Sagital (split body left to right)

o Coronal (Split body front and back)

o Transverse (Body in upper and lower parts)

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23
Q

Proximal

A

Close to midline

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24
Q

Distal

A

Away from midline

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25
Q

Anterior

A

Front

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26
Q

Posterior

A

Back

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27
Q

Superior

A

Above

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28
Q

Inferior

A

Below

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29
Q

Medial

A

Towards midline

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30
Q

Lateral

A

Away from midline

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31
Q

Types of joints

A
  • Fibrous Joints
  • Cartilaginous Joints
  • Synovial Joints
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32
Q

6 Types of Synovial Joints

A
  1. Plane/Gliding (foot arch & wrist)
  2. Hinge (Knee, ulna & humerus)
  3. Ball and Socket (Shoulder girdle, hip)
  4. Saddle (Base of thumb, move in 2 directions)
  5. Pivot
  6. Ellipsoid
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33
Q

Long Bone structure

A
  • Diaphysis
  • Epiphysis
  • Metaphysis
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34
Q

Diaphysis

A

Shaft of long bone

Compact bone

Medullary cavity in the middle

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35
Q

Epiphysis

A

Wide part at each end of long bone

Mostly cancellous/trabecular bone

Covered with compact bone (Cortex)

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36
Q

Metaphysis

A

Growth plate where epiphysis and diaphysis meet

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37
Q

2 Types of bone

A
  1. Woven bone (“quick fix”)

2. Lamellar bone

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38
Q

Canaliculi

A

Tiny channels for distribution of nutrients and removal of waste between lacuna in osteons

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39
Q

Trabeculae

A

Open network formed from the matrix in spongy bone

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40
Q

Periosteum

A

Membrane on the outside of the bone

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41
Q

Endosteum

A

Membrane on the inside of the bone, lines the medullary cavity

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42
Q

Bone cells

A
  • Osteoprogenitor cells
  • Osteoblasts
  • Osteocytes
  • Osteoclasts
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43
Q

Osteoprogenitor cells

A

Mesenchymal cells that divide to produce osteoblasts

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44
Q

Osteoblasts

A

Immature bone cells that secrete matrix compounds (Osteoid) during osteogenesis

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45
Q

Osteocytes

A

Mature bone cells that maintain the bone matrix

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46
Q

Osteoclasts

A

Giant multinucleate cells that dissolve bone matrix

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47
Q

5 Phases of bone remodelling

A
  1. Activation
  2. Resorption
  3. Reversal
  4. Formation
  5. Quiescence
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48
Q

Appositional Growth

A

Growth in width through an increase in circumferential lamellae

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49
Q

Order and number of vertebrae

A
  • (C) Cervical (7)
  • (T) Thorax (12)
  • (L) Lumbar (5)
  • (S) Sacral (fused 5)
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50
Q

Upper limb structure

A
  • Shoulder girdle – clavicle and scapula
  • Upper arm – humerus
  • Lower arm – ulna and radius
  • Wrist – carpals
  • Hand – metacarpals
  • Fingers – phalanges
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51
Q

Lower limb Structure

A
  • Pelvis – Os coxae
    o Ischium
    o Pubis
    o Ilium
  • Thigh – Femur
  • Knee cap – Patella
  • Lower leg – Tibia
  • Lower leg – Fibula
  • Ankle bones – tarsals
  • Foot – metatarsals
  • Toes – phalanges
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52
Q

6 Sphincters in the GIT

A
  1. Upper esophageal sphincter (mouth to esophagus)
  2. Lower esophageal sphincter (esophagus to stomach)
  3. Pyloric sphincter (stomach to Duodenum)
  4. Ileocecal sphincter (Small intestine to colon)
  5. Internal and external Anal sphincters
  6. Sphincters of Oddi:
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53
Q

4 Layers of the GIT

A
  1. Mucosa:
    o Epithelilum
    o Lamina Propria
    o Muscular mucosal
  2. Submucosa
  3. Muscularis
  4. Adventitia/Serosa
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54
Q

5 functions of Digestive System

A
  1. Ingestion
  2. Secretion
  3. Digestion
  4. Absorption
  5. Storage & Elimination
55
Q

Omentum

A

Double layered extension or fold of peritoneum that passes from stomach to proximal part of duodenum

56
Q

Peritoneum

A

COntinous, glistening and transparent serous membrane

57
Q

Rugae

A

Folds and creases in the stomach that allow stretching

58
Q

Stomach cell types

A
  • Mucous
  • Parietal
  • Chief cells
  • Entero-endocrine cells
59
Q

Small intestine structure

A
  • Enterocytes (intestinal cells)
  • brush-border enzymes
    o Dipeptidases & tripeptidases
    o Disaccharidases
    o Enterokinases
60
Q

Cells of the small intestine

A
  • Paneth cells
  • Stem Cells
  • Goblet Cells
  • Entero-endocrine cells
  • Absorptive enterocytes
  • Tufts cells
61
Q

Taeniae coli

A
  • 3 longitudinal fibres running along the colon
62
Q

Acini

A

Secretory unit of the salivary glands

  • Serous acini
  • Mucous acini
  • Mixed acinus
63
Q

Ducts of salivary gland

A
  • Secretory units merge = intercalated ducts
  • Intercalated ducts -> striated ducts
  • Striated ducts -> interlobular ducts

finally to main collecting duct

64
Q

Hepatocytes

A

Liver cells that produce bile

65
Q

Liver ducts

A

o Left & right hepatic ducts -> common hepatic duct

o Common hepatic duct + cystic duct (to gall bladder) -> common bile duct

o Common bile duct + pancreatic duct -> Ampulla of Vater, or Hepatopancreatic duct.

66
Q

Whats in pancreatic juice

A

o Pancreatic Amylase – breaks down polysaccharides

o Pancreatic Lipase – breaks down fats

o Peptidases – trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, procarboxypeptidase

o Also has ribonuclease and deoxyribonuclease which break down DNA & RNA

67
Q

Secretin

A

Stims pancretic duct to secrete bicarb to lower chyme acidity

68
Q

CCK

A

Stims acinar cells to secrete pancreatic juices

69
Q

Important players in Starch/Carb digestion

A
  • Salivary alpha-amylase cleaves alpha-1-4 glycosidic bonds
  • Pancreatic alpha-amylase does same thing
  • Brush border enzymes:
    o Maltase hydrolyses 1-4 glycosidic bonds
    o Sucrase hydrolyses alpha 1-6/4 glycosidic bonds
  • Sodium-Glucose Linked Transporter
70
Q

Important players in Protein digestion

A
  • HCl in stomach -> pepsin from pepsinogen
  • Pepsin hydrolyses peptide bonds
  • Enterokinase activates zymogens -> trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase which all hydrolyse peptide bonds
  • Sodium co-transporter into enterocyte
71
Q

Important players in Lipid digestion

A
  • CCK in small intestine -> bile is released
  • bile emulsifies hydrophobic fat mols
  • Pancreatic lipase enzymes cleave ester bonds in glycerol backbone
  • enterocytes absorb glycerol & fatty acids via diffusion
72
Q

Microbiome

A

Collective genomes of micro organisms in a particular environment

73
Q

Microbiota

A

Community of micro organisms

74
Q

Enterotypes

A

Refers to presiding genus (phyla) for a particular individual. Defined by presiding genus of microbe

75
Q

Commensal interactions with the host

A

Co-exist without harming, only one benefits though

76
Q

Mutualism interactions with the host

A

Both organisms benefit (most of our interactions with microbes)

77
Q

Parasitic interactions with the host

A

1 benefits, other is harmed

78
Q

Dysbiosis

A

Imbalance in bacteria associated with disease or ‘skewing of commensal community’

79
Q

Causal association of microbiome and disease

A

Does dysbiosis cause IBD?

80
Q

Reverse causal association of microbiome and disease

A

Does IBD cause dysbiosis?

81
Q

‘A non-relevant mechanism of another risk factor’ association of microbiome and disease

A

Does an unhealthy diet cause both dysbiosis and IBD?

82
Q

‘An important underlying mechanism for another causal factor’ association of microbiome and disease

A

Does a bad diet cause dysbiosis which then causes IBD?

83
Q

‘Combination of mechanisms’ association of microbiome and disease

A

Does a bad diet AND dysbiosis cause IBD?

84
Q

Influencing factors on the microbiome

A
  • Genetics
  • Mother’s health and nutritional status
  • Gestational age (premature infants have specific microbiome)
  • Infant-feeding patterns
  • Physical environment
  • Weight loss & obesity
  • Sanitary living conditions
  • Dietary habits:
  • Antibiotic usage and other medications
85
Q

Probiotics

A
  • Live microbes in food or supplements (Kombucha)

- Beneficial to host when administered in sufficient quantities

86
Q

Prebiotics

A
  • Non-digestible foods/ingredients

- Selectively stimulate growth of beneficial bacteria

87
Q

Symbiotic

A

Prebiotic + Probiotic

88
Q

Antibiotics

A

Diminishes the population of total and commensal bacteria

89
Q

Secretory Diarrhoea

A
  • Continues during fasting

- Net loss of water & electrolytes as watery stool

90
Q

Osmotic Diarrhoea

A
  • Allows rapid osmotic flow of water and ions to maintain osmotic balance between lumen and plasma
91
Q

Isotonic dehydration

A
  • Normal serum osmolality

- Losing the same amount of water and sodium

92
Q

Hypertonic dehydration

A
  • Loss of more water than sodium

- High serum osmolality

93
Q

Hypotonic Dehydration

A
  • Loss of more sodium than water

- Low serum osmolality

94
Q

Metabolic pathway for Pyruvate in absence of O2

A

o Will convert to lactate – lactate goes to liver and kidney where its converted back to glucose(gluconeogenesis) and either stored as glycogen or released back into blood.

95
Q

Cori Cycle

A

o Liver transforms 2 lactate mols into 1 glucose mol via pyruvate

o Taken to muscle where 1 glucose mol transform into 2 lactate mols via pyruvate

o Take back to liver and cycles

96
Q

Protein Complex 1

A
  • NADH dehydrogenase
  • Oxidises NADH -> releases 2 e-
  • 2H+ brought over -> ubiqionol from ubiqionone which goes to complex III
97
Q

Protein Complex III

A
  • Cytochrome C Reductase
  • reduced Cytochrome C & Ubiqiunol is oxidised to release 2H+

_ Cytochrome C moves to protein complex IV

98
Q

Protein Complex IV

A

Cytochrome C Oxidase

  • Cytochrome C oxidised
99
Q

Protein Complex II

A

Succinate Dehydrogenase

  • Reduces FAD -> FADH2
  • Reduces Ubiqiunone, ubiqiunol moves to complex III
100
Q

Gluconeogenesis

A

Making new glucose from non-glucose molecules

101
Q

Glycogenesis

A

Formation of glycogen from glucose

102
Q

Glycogenolysis

A

Conversion of glycogen to glucose-6-phosphate

103
Q

Transamination

A

Amine group is removed from one amino acid and added to Keto acid to form new amino acid

104
Q

Oxidative Deamination

A

metabolic pathway that removes amine group from amino acid - leaving Keto-acid and ammonia

  • Mostly Glutamate formed through transamination of amine group and alpha-ketoglutarate
105
Q

Lipogenesis

A

Formation of fat

106
Q

How many muscle in human adult

A

660

107
Q

Functions of muscle

A
  1. Converts chem energy into force & mechanical work
  2. Maintains posture and body position
  3. Supports soft tissues
  4. Encircles opening of digestive and urinary tracts
  5. Heat production
  6. Reservoir for protein storage
108
Q

Shapes of muscles

A
  1. Convergent
  2. Circular
  3. Multipennate
  4. Bipennate
  5. Unipennate
  6. Parallel
  7. Fusiform
109
Q

Hierarchical Organisation of skeletal muscle

A
  1. Muscle
  2. Muscle fascicle
  3. Myofiber (cell)
  4. Myofibril (Organelle)
  5. Sarcomere
  6. Myofilament
110
Q

Epimysium

A

Sheath around each muscle

111
Q

Perimysium

A

Covers fascicles

112
Q

Endomysium

A

Covers each muscle fibre

113
Q

Sarcolemma

A

Cell membrane

114
Q

Sarcoplasm

A

Cytoplasm

115
Q

M-line (Sarcomere)

A

Holds thick filaments in the middle of the sarcomere

116
Q

H-zone width (Sarcomere)

A

Corresponds to the length of thick filament that don’t overlap with thin filaments

  • Middle of the A band
  • Shortens during contraction
117
Q

I band

A
  • Light band of sarcomere
  • Only thin (actin) filaments
  • Shortens during contraction
118
Q

A band

A
  • dark band of sarcomere

- Both thin (actin) and thick (Myosin) filaments

119
Q

Sarcoplasmic Reticulum

A

Modified smooth ER

120
Q

Terminal Cisternae

A

Expanded portion at the end of each sarcoplasmic reticulum.

Stores Ca2+

121
Q

Ryanodine Receptors

A

Ca2+ releasing channels in SR membrane

122
Q

Transverse tubules

A

Populate the gap between adjacent terminal cisternae

123
Q

3 isoforms of Myosin

A
  1. MHC1 (slowest contraction velocity)
  2. MHC2A (fastest contraction velocity)
  3. MHC2X
124
Q

Motor unit

A

Smallest Functional unit of neural control of muscle contraction

125
Q

Excitation-Contraction Coupling

A

The process by which an electrical stimulus triggers the release of Ca2+ from the SR, initiating the mechanism of muscle contraction by sarcomere shortening

126
Q

Concentric contraction

A

Force by muscle is greater than opposing force - visible shortening of muscle

127
Q

Isometric contraction

A

no movement of muscle, but muscle contracts (like pushing against a wall)

128
Q

Eccentric contraction

A

Muscle lengthens while trying to contract, force of muscle is smaller than the opposing force

129
Q

Summation

A

If the muscle is stimulated before it fully relaxes, the force produced by the second twitch will be greater than the first

130
Q

Incomplete Tetanus

A

If we increase the frequency of stimulation the relaxation time between successive twitches will get shorter and shorter as the strength of contraction increases in amplitude.

131
Q

Complete tetanus

A

A stimulation frequency is eventually reached where there is no visible relaxation between successive twitches

132
Q

Muscle spindles

A

Provide sensory information about the:

  1. Absolute length of the muscle
  2. The rate of change in length
133
Q

Golgi Tendon Organ

A

Respond to tension rather than length (Not muscle spindles)

134
Q

How many ATP are produced from 1 mol of Glucose in O2?

A

30-32

HUB2019F (2 decks)

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