HSC - Biology Flashcards
1
Q
Life
A
An adaptable self-replicating, energy-dependant system
2
Q
A-sexual
A
Produces identical offspring
- Vegetation propagation
- Spores
- Budding
- Binary Regeneration
- Fragmentation regeneration
3
Q
Sexual (gambetes)
A
Involves combining genetic material from two parents
External (aquatic)
- Large number of offspring
- high mortality
- Low investment (energy)
- Random combination of gametes
Internal (terrestrial)
- Small number of offspring
- Low mortality
- High investment
- Selection of best gamete combination (courtship)
4
Q
Hormone reproduction in Humans
A
Oestrogen = Causes eggs to mature in ovaries once a girl hits puberty Testosterone = Stimulates sperm production in males
5
Q
Hormones
A
Follicle Stiimulating hormone (FSH)
- Causing maturation of an egg in the ovary
Progesterone
- Involved in maintaining the uterus linings
Luteinising hormone
- Stimulates the release of the egg
6
Q
Binary Fission
A
A-sexual reproduction by a separation of the body into two new bodies
- A organism duplicates its genetic material or DNA, and then divides into two parts with each new organism receiving one copy of DNA
7
Q
Eukaryotic Binary Fission
A
Occurs when a single protist divides its nucleus and then separates into two seperate organisms
8
Q
Prokaryote binary fission
A
The DNA molecule replicates, then attaches each copy to a different part of the cell membrane. When the cell pulls apart, they replicate and original
9
Q
Fragmentation
A
When an organism splits into fragments, and each fragment grows into individual organisms which are clone of the original
10
Q
Budding
A
A form of a-sexual reproduction in which a new individual develops from some generative anatomical point of the parent organism. In some species buds may be produced from almost any point of the body, but in many cases budding is restricted to specialised areas
11
Q
Gametes
A
An organism’s reproductive cells
12
Q
Zygote
A
The union of the sperm cell and the egg cell. Begins as a single cell but divides rapidly in the days following fertilisation
13
Q
Eutherians
A
One of two mammalian with extent members the diverged in early cretaceous or perhaps the late Jurassic. Give birth to well developed young
14
Q
Deoxyribic Nucleic Acid (DNA)
A
A macro molecule made of Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen and Phosphorous combined into units called nucleotides
15
Q
The DNA Story
A
Darwin - Theory of evolution but no mechanism
Boveri + Sutton - Darwin’s mechanism might be visible structures in cells that can be seen using chemicals
Crick + Watson - Nobel prize for describing the DNA molecule
- chemical analysis of DNA
- used x-ray crystallography images taken by Rosalind Franklin without her knowledge
16
Q
Mitosis
A
Cell division for growth/repair
Produces 2 identical daughter cells
- To form a new individual all cells perform mitosis byt when differentiation into tissue types si complete most cells stop doing mitosis
- Epithetical cells continue to divide (skin, digestive track…)
17
Q
Meiosis
A
Type of cell division of germ cells in sexually-reproducing organisms used to produce the gametes, such as sperm or egg cells. It involves two rounds of division that ultimately result in four cells with only one copy of each chromosome.
18
Q
Artificial Insemination
A
Deliberate introduction of sperm into a females cervix for the purpose of achieving pregnancy without sexual intercourse
19
Q
Sources of variation
A
1) Crossing over of homologous pairs
2) Random assortment of homologous pairs
3) Random recombination of gametes
4) Mutation - (copying errors, mutations
20
Q
Clone
A
A genetically identical copy of a biological entity
- Scientist take a somatic cell from animal they wish to replicate
- Somatic cell nuclear transfer (removal of nucleus from egg. create inoculated egg)
- Fusion of DNA into gamete (through electrical fusion or injections)
- The egg develops before being implanted into womb
21
Q
Polypeptide/protein synthesis
A
- Unzipping: Enzyme RNA polymerase opens up the DNA
- Transcription: DNA is transcribed to become RNA (uracil replace thymine). Makes an mRNA strand
- Translation: mRNA moves to a ribosome and molecules of tRNA bring amino acids to the ribosome in the correct sequence. (Codon holds the three together)
- Polypeptide Synthesis: Amino acids are joined by peptide bonds to form polypeptide chain
- Fold for protein assembly
Groups of 3 mRNA bases are called Codons
Groups of 3 tRNA bases are called Anti-Codons
22
Q
Inheritance
A
Transfer of DNA from one generation to another
23
Q
Allele
A
Different versions of the same gene
- in most cases genes have two alleles however there can be multiple alleles (blood types)
24
Q
Dominant allele
A
always expressed
25
recessive allele
only expressed if there are no dominant alleles
26
Heterozygous
Has 2 different alleles for a particular gene
27
Homozygous (dominant/recessive)
has 2 identical alleles for a particular gene
28
Chromosomes
A DNA molecule made from protein and deoxyribonucleic acid, humans have 23 pairs
Y = male X = Female
Types of chromosomes:
1) Sex chromosomes = code for sexual characteristics (breasts, adam apple) - humans have 2 chromosomes (XX = female, YX = Male) *these are haploud
2) Autosome = Don't code for sexual characteristics (eye colour) - humans have 22 pairs *these are diploid
29
Autosomal inheritance
Patterns in expression of characteristics which are found on autosomes
- Dominant / recessive
- Co-dominant = both alleles are expressed in genotype (both expressed)
- Incomplete = The dominant allele is only partly expressed (mixed)
30
Pedigrees
Shows how traits are passed on over many generations
circle = female
Square = male
filled in = carrying the trait
*if almost all the affected individuals are males its probably sex linked and if even than autosomal
31
Phenotypic, genotypic and allele frequency
Phenotype = An organism’s physical expression of a particular characteristic
The expression of trait
Genotype = An organism’s genetic makeup for a particular characteristic.
The alleles for a trait
Allele = The relative proportion of a particular allele in a population
Total number of alleles in the population / Number of an allele in a population
32
Mutagen
An agent that causes mutation
1) Electromagnetic Radiation
- High energy EM radiation causes atoms to vibrate and lose electrons. Breaks bonds
2) Chemical
- Incorporate themselves into DNA
- Insert themselves into DNA
- Make gaps in DNA
3) Biological
- Mutagenic chemicals which come from microbes, plants and animals
33
Cancer
Cells replicate incorrectly
34
Radiation
Electro-magnetic radiation (EMR)
- Spectrum
- Radiowaves (gamma -> radiation)
35
Chemical
Compounds that interfere with DNA (replaces part of it)
36
Biological
Natural compounds that can cause damage
37
Point Mutations
One nucleotide is changed
Occur due to errors in DNA replication (sometimes mutagens
1) Insertion = extra nucleotide added
Every codon after the mutation is effected. (frameshift point mutations) large effect
2) Deletion = nucleotide not included
Every codon after the mutation is effected. (frameshift point mutations) large effect
3) Substitution = wrong nucleotide added
Mis-sense = substitution of one nucleotide so the codon codes for a different amino acid
Non-sense = substitution of one codon so that the codon is a stop codon
Silent = substitution of one nucleotide, so the codon codes for the same amino acid
*sickle cell anaemia is an example
38
Chromosomal mutations
A change in the arrangement or structure of a chromosome
- They occur due to errors in cell division -> often when crossing over in meiosis
1) Deletion = A section breaks off and is lost
2) Inversion = A section breaks off, flips around and reattaches
3) Translocation = A section breaks off and sticks to a different chromosome.
4) Duplication = A section is accidentally copied more than once
5) Non-disjunction = Chromosome don't seperate properly
* if breakage occurs in the middle of a gene, the gene will be destroyed
* Down syndrome (trisomy 21) = genetic disorder where people have 3 copies of chromosome 21
39
Germ cell
Any cell which can divide (meiosis) to form sex cells
40
Germ-line mutations
```
A change in the DNA of a germ cell
parent -> offspring
- all of the offsprings cells will have the mutation
*parent is unaffected
(down syndrome)
```
41
Somatic cell
Any cell which forms the body tissue of the organism (mitosis)
42
Somatic mutation
A change in the DNA of a somatic cell
- will only affect daughter cells and offspring is unaffected
(lung cancer)
43
Coding DNA
DNA which codes for the amino acid sequence of a protein
EFFECT
- Vary depending on type of mutation and what cell its in
(Sickle cell anaemia)
44
Non-coding DNA
DNA which doesn't code for proteins
EFFECT
- Makes functional RNA: change in efficiency of protein synthesis
- Regulatory sequences: change in amount of protein produced
- Repetitive sequences: none
(lung cancer
45
Gene pool
Total collection of alleles for all genes in a population
- Retain the genetic information of the population
- Used to compare populations
- Are dynamic
46
Changes in Gene pools
1) Gene flow = movement of alleles between populations, and can cause changes in allele frequency
2) Genetic drift = random events occurring within the population, can lead to changes in allele frequency
3) Mutation = change in an organism's DNA and acts as a source of new alleles
4) Selection pressures = external factors which affect an organism's ability to survive
- positive selection pressure: increase allele frequency
- visa versa
47
Biotechnology
The use of biological systems, processes and organisms in the creation of new products and technologies.
1) industrial biotechnology
2) Agriculture biotechnology
3) Reproductive technology
48
Uses of Biotechnology
Past
- Selective breeding in agriculture
- Fermentation
- Traditional medicine
Present
- Polymerase chain reaction
- DNA sequencing
- DNA profiling
- Cloning
- Transgenic organisms
49
Polymerase chain reaction
A technique used to amplify a specific region of DNA
- short DNA sequences (primers) used to select the portion of genome to be amplified
- Temp raised and lowered to help DNA replication enzyme copy target DNA sequence
50
Transgenic organism
A species that has been ‘created’ by inserting a foreign gene into a distinct species
* Golden rice
1) Beta Carotene gene extracted from wheat by cutting the DNA by restriction enzyme
2) Plasmid removed from bacterium and cut by restriction enzyme
3) Foreign DNA inserted into plasmid. Complementary base pairs join them (sticky ends)
4) Plasmid reinserted into bacterium
5) Bacterium used to insert T-DNA into the chromosome of plant cell
6) plant cells grown in culture. copy the recombinant DNA
7) plant generated from cell clone carrying the trait
51
DNA profiling
Used to sort DNA strands according to length
- Extract DNA
- Lysis/break open cell to reach DNA
- polymerase chain reaction for amplification
- gel electrophoresis for sorting into lengths
52
DNA sequencing
Used to determine the exact series of nucleotides
- identical to profiling
- genome analyser reads the terminator base
53
CRISPR
Clustered, regularly interspaced, short, palindromic repeats describe the anomaly observed in some bacterial DNA.
- restriction enzyme that was guided by a strip of RNA that can be used to make a 'cut' in DNA
Can be used to cause mutations or replace with healthy genes
54
Bio-ethics
The study and investigation of how decisions in medicine and science affect society and the environment
1) Benefit and non-harm
2) individual rights and autonomy
3) Privacy and societal perception
4) Equity and justice
55
Health
a complete state of physical, mental and social well-being and not merely an absense of disease of infinity
56
Pathogen
Disease causing organism
- Bacteria
- Virus
- Fungi
- Prions
- Parasites
57
Bacteria
Single celled prokaryotic organisms
- cell wall - non membrane bound nucleus with pilus
- eukaryotes, bacteria, archaea
- reproduce a-sexually through binary fission
TYPES
1) coccus
2) strepto-coccus
3) bacillus
4) spirala
Tuberculosis = effects the lungs
58
Viruses
Non-living and non-cellular
- nucleic acid and protein
Spanish Flu = influenza A virus
59
Protists
eukaryotic, single-celled pathogens
Malaria caused by a paramecium parasite
60
Macro-parasites
eucaryotes, multi-cellular, many forms, various severity
Tape worm
61
Fungi beh
Eukaryotic, single/multi cellular, reproduce via spores
| - minor pathogens in animals (except frogs) but major in plants
62
Prions
Protein molecules that is incorrectly formed and damages healthy protein by pulling them apart
- naturally occurring and can be transferred to humans
- only one disease caused by this
Mad cow disease -> CID (humans)
63
Defences - first line
1) FIRST LINE = Barriers to infection
Physical:
- Skin and it microflora prevents exposure to environment
- Cilia (micro - hairs) trap particles in air
Chemical:
- Stomach acid destroys most organisms
- tears contain anti-biotic compounds
- mucous traps and expels particles
Microbiological:
- microflora
- produce antimicrobial chemicals to prevent growth of others
64
Defenses - second line
SECOND LINE - innate immune system
*innate within humans and non-specific
Phagocytosis:
- The process by which phagocytes engulf and destroy foreign or unwanted materials
Natural killer cells
- defence against virus-infected and cancerous cells
- release cytotoxic chemicals in close proximity
Inflammation:
- The accumulation of fluid, plasma proteins and white blood cells that occur when tissue is damaged or infected
- confine, destroy and remove pathogen
The complement system
- proteins which float around in blood
- punch holes in cell membrane or wall of pathogen, promote inflammation, opsonisation (proteins flag for antigen removal)
65
Defences - third line
THIRD LINE - Adaptive immune system
ANTIBODY-MEDIATED IMMUNITY
B Lymphocytes:
- White blood cell produced in bone marrow
- produced bone marrow, released into blood, accumulate in lymphoid tissues
- when in contact with specific antigen it activates and forms millions clone plasma cells
Types
1) Plasma cells:
- Produces antibodies
- proteins which bind to specific antigens
- interfere with function of pathogen
2) Memory B lymphocytes
- provide immunological memory
- long term defence against antigens
- exposure to same antigen: faster, stronger, longer lasting
CELL-MEDIATED IMMUNITY
T lymphocytes:
- when in contact with specific antigen, it proliferates and differentiations into one of four cell types
1) Cytotoxic = kill foreign, infected or abnormal host cells by releasing toxic compounds
2) helper = secrete cytokines that increase activity of phagocytes, promote inflammation and stimulate the production of B/T lymphocytes
3) Suppressor = Turn off immune response after the antigen has been successfully removed
4) Memory = Persist after an infection, enable larger and faster response upon reinfection
66
RNA
Ribonucleic acid, a nucleic acid present in all living cells. Its principal role is to act as a messenger carrying instructions from DNA for controlling the synthesis of proteins, although in some virus’s RNA rather than DNA carries the genetic information.
67
Louis Pasteur
Introduced "germ theory" disproved spontaneous generation
- Invented heat treatment (pasteurisation) to preserve wine
- discovered immunisation (accidentally) by injecting chickens with dead cholera bacteria
- Performed swan necked flask experiment (flask with infusion, particles couldn't enter through swan neck, when he broke flask it came infected)
68
Robert Koch
Koch's postulates - microbe cause disease
1) The microbes must be present in the blood of infected individual
2) The microbe must be extracted and cultured
3) the microbe must cause the same symptoms when introduced to a healthy organism
4) the microbe must be present in the blood of the second individual
69
Lymphatic system
A network of tissues and organs that assist in removing toxins, waste and other unwanted materials
70
Vaccination
A method of exposing the immune system to an antigen so it can produce memory cells
produces Antigens
71
Fever
Pyrogens are proteins produced when pathogen is damaging cells that affect the hypothalamus. Elevated homeostatic point causes fever and body responds
72
Immunity
Antibiotic story
- Alexander Flemming observes that penicillia mould inhibit bacterial growth
- Howard Florey isolates the compound and produces injectable penicillin
Resistance due to:
1) Inappropriate prescription (prescribing for non-bacterial disease)
2) Incorrect use (not completing the 'course')
3) Use as a preventative medication in agriculture
73
Active immunity
active immunity occurs when your immune system is stimulates by an antigen to make its own T cells, B cells and antibodies
Natural active immunity = immune after catching disease
Artificial active immunity = produced by vaccination
74
Passive immunity
when antibodies are transferred to an un-immunised person, providing them with temporary protection against a microbial agent or toxin
Natural passive immunity = antibodies received through mother
Artificial passive immunity = injected with another persons antibodies
75
Factors increasing the spread of disease
- Pathogen features
- method of transmission
- population density
- movement of individuals
- proportion of the population that is immune
76
Factors preventing outbreak of disease
- Hygiene practises
- Vaccination
- Pesticides
- Genetic engineering
77
Controlling the spread of Disease
- Hygiene practices
- Vaccination
- Pesticides
- Genetic engineering
- Quarantine
- Medications
- Public health campaigns
78
Mosquitoes
When mosquito extract blood from individual it also takes up pathogens. These are later injected into non-infected individuals thus spreading disease. They inject anticoagulants which prevent blood clotting thus the disease is transmitted.
Mosquito acts as a vector
Malaria = disease caused by a protist (plasmodium). It is carried by female mosquitos and injected into blood. This destroys red blood cells. Can result in death
79
Antibiotics
Drugs that treat bacterial infections
- kill bacteria
- slow growth
Specifically target biochemical pathways and molecules unique to bacteria
- bacteria wall synthesis
- nucleic acid synthesis
- protein synthesis
- certain metabolic pathways
Resistant bacteria pass on the resistance gene to their offspring
80
Antivirals
Drugs that treat viral infections
Target characteristics unique to viruses
- viral nucleic acid
- proteins
Prevent the virus from entering a new cell or spreading
Antivirals can mutate and develop resistance
81
Homeostasis
The process by which the body maintains a constant internal environment
- Stimulus = a change in environment
- Receptor = detects change and sends messages to control centre
- Control centre = relays the message to the relevant effector
- Effector = responds to the signal
- Response = restores the internal conditions of the body
82
Thermoregulation
The regulation of an animal's body temperature in order to keep it within an ideal range
83
Ectotherms
Body temp is regulated by the ambient/environmental temperature
84
Endotherms
Control temperature by modifying their internal body processes
85
Osmoregulation in Plants
The regulation of an organism between water and dissolved materials
```
Xerophytes = dry environ
Mesophytes = moderately wet
Hydrophytes = wet environ
Halophytes = saline environments
```
86
Nervous system
Allows organisms to take information from the environment and respond by passing information around the body through a network of neural pathways
1) Central nervous system
- coordinates information
2) Peripheral nervous system
- Carries massages around
Somatic = voluntary control of body movement
Autonomic = involuntary bodily processes
87
Neurons
Functional units of the nervous system which carry signals throughout the body
Comprised of:
- Cell body
- Dendrites
- Axon
- Myelin sheath
- Synaptic knobs
88
Non-infectious
(non-communicable disease) are no caused by a pathogen and are not contagious
- Heredity
- Lifesyle
- Environmental
- Deficiency
89
The endocrine system
Made up of glands which secrete hormones
Uses the stimulis response model
90
Glands
Groups of specialised cells
91
Hormones
chemical messengers that regulate processes within our body
92
Genetic disease
Caused by mutations of the gene or chromosomes of an individual
93
Single gene abnormalities
Opposite to polygenic (most common cause of phenotype expressions multiple genes contributing)
94
Chromosomal abnormalities
Some genetic disease are caused by mutations of the chromosomes that carry genes
- incorrect number
- change to chromosome itself
- Non-disjunction (incorrect seperation)
- trisomy (extra)
- monosomy (missing)
95
Epidemiology
The study of the incidence of diseases or risk factors for disease in populations. it also includes a study for possible factors that influence the incidence of conditions.
96
Lung cancer - Epidemiology study
From one of the most uncommon and obscure diseases to the most common worldwide cancer in the world (12.3%)
97
Types of non-infectious disease
Genetic Disorders = Altered/incorrect expression of a gene that causes disease is passed on
Cystic Fibrosis
- Caused by mutation in the CFTR gene
- caused build-up of sticky mucus
- breathings problems and increased infection
Environmental Exposure = environmental factors can trigger diseases
Hypersensitivity reaction
- over-reaction of immune system in response to antigens
- spontaneous mutation in genes
```
Cancer = Disease that involve unregulated and abnormal cell growth and division
- Mutations damage genes
- increased cell division
- Suppression of programmed cell death
- tumours form
- Carcinogen = cancer causing agent
Tobacco smoke
```
Nutritional factors = malnutrition is a deficiency, imbalance, or excess of carbs, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals and water
- undernutrition (stunting, wasting, underweight, micronutrient
Over-nutrition (obesity, diet related non-infectious disease)
98
Gene
A sequence of bases in DNA that codes for a specific protein
99
Eukaryote
Any cell or organism that possesses a clearly defined nucleus. Also contains membrane bound organelles
100
Prokaryote
Lacks a distinct nucleus and other organelles
| bacteria
101
Symbiosis
Mutualism = both organisms benefit
Commensalism = One organism benefits, the other is unharmed
Parasitism = One organism benefits while the other is harmed
102
Adaptation
Behavioural = responses made by an organism that help it to survive/reproduce.
Physiological = a body process that helps an organism to survive/reproduce.
Structural = a feature of an organism's body that helps it to survive/reproduce.
103
Mutation
A mutation is a change in the genetic material of a cell—the sequence of nucleotides in DNA is altered
- The main source of genetic variation is mutation. This affects phenotype, the basis for natural selection. The likelihood of a gene being passed on depends whether it is dominant, co-dominant or recessive
Gene Flow
- Gene flow is the transfer of genetic variation from one population to another and thus affecting allele frequency.
Genetic Drift
- Instead of natural selection, chance is another reason for some organisms to survive while others don’t; even with less advantageous traits. However, the allele frequency of the survivors will increase as they reproduce
104
Genetic Modification Issues
```
Social = monopolistic power
Ethical = harmfulness to humans, contamination of other species
```
105
The Ear
A structure designed to capture sound waves and send corresponding signals to the brain
106
Hearing Loss
1) Conductive Hearing loss
- Deafness caused by damage to the outer or middle ear
2) Sensorineural hearing loss
- Deafness caused by damage to the inner ear or nerve pathways from the inner ear to the brain
3) Auditory processing disorder
- Due to defects in the auditory areas of the brain
4) tinnitus
- Broad term for hearing a ringing in the ears
TREATMENTS
1) Hearing Aids
2) Bone conduction Implants
3) Cochlear Implant
107
Prevalence/Incidence/Mortality
Prevalence = number of living people diagnosed with a disease of a given time
new and pre-existing cases / total population
Incidence = The number of new cases of a disease diagnosed within a specific time period
New cases/total population
Mortality = Number of death occurring as a result of the disease during specific time.
108
Epidemiology studey
Collection and statistical analysis of a large quantities of data
Types:
- Analytical studies = aims to determine patterns in the way a disease is distributed
- Descriptive studies - Aims to determine patterns int he way a disease is distributed
- Intervention Studies = Aims to measure the effectiveness and safety of health intervention.
109
Data collection - Epidemiology
1) Diagnosis stages
- Confirm presense
2) Description stages
- where population at risk and distribution described
3) Investigative stages
- Where studies are implemented to investigate whether evidence supports hypothesis
4) Experimental stage
- where experiments are performed under controlled conditions
5) Analytical stage
- Results analysed
6) Decision
- Knowledge gained used to develop health programs and services or direct further research
110
The eye
Organs which process visible light and turn this information into nerve impulses in order for the brain to interpret the physical environment
111
Visual Disorders
```
Lens:
- Refractive errors prevent light from falling on the retina correctly. This causes blurry/foggy vision, caused by a misshapen lens or eyeball
Examples:
- Myopia (short sightedness)
- Hyperopia (long sightedness)
```
```
Retina:
- Damage to the retina causes loss of vision
Examples:
- retinopathy
- Macular degeneration
- Colour blindness
```
112
Treatment of visual disorders
Glasses:
Concave lens - Myopia
Convex Lens - Hyperopia
Laser Surgery:
Curvature of the cornea is decreased - myopia
Curvature of the cornea is increased - huperopia
113
The Kidney
An organ is responsible for filtering blood and excreting excess wastes, salt and water in order to maintain homeostasis
114
Kidney Disorders
When the kidneys are damaged and don't function as they should
1) Glomerulophritis
2) Diabetic Nephropathy
3) Polycystic kidney disease
4) Kidney stones
*Prevents the kidney from effectiveling filling the bload. Metabolic waste build up and salt/water levels become imbalanced.
115
Treatment for Kidney disorders
DYALYSIS
- Replicates kidney function
The process of removing waste products and excess fluid from blood by an external machine called a dialyser
Adv = Patients can continue living with a decent quality of life
disad = time consuming
KIDNEY TRANSPLANT
The replacement of a damaged kidney with a healthy one from a matching donor
Adv = Longer and more 'normal life for patients
Disad = possible kidney failure, risks using immunosuppressive drugs
116
The Kidney
An organ is responsible for filtering blood and excreting excess wastes, salt and water in order to maintain homeostasis
117
Kidney Disorders
When the kidneys are damaged and don't function as they should
1) Glomerulophritis
2) Diabetic Nephropathy
3) Polycystic kidney disease
4) Kidney stones
*Prevents the kidney from effectiveling filling the bload. Metabolic waste build up and salt/water levels become imbalanced.
118
Treatment for Kidney disorders
DYALYSIS
- Replicates kidney function
The process of removing waste products and excess fluid from blood by an external machine called a dialyser
Adv = Patients can continue living with a decent quality of life
disad = time consuming
KIDNEY TRANSPLANT
The replacement of a damaged kidney with a healthy one from a matching donor
Adv = Longer and more 'normal life for patients
Disad = possible kidney failure, risks using immunosuppressive drugs
