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Psych 180 > How to think about weird things > Flashcards

How to think about weird things Flashcards

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0
Q

Remote Viewing

A

The alleged ability to acurately perceive information about distant geographical locations without using any sense

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1
Q

Precognitive Dream

A

A dream that seems to foretell the future

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2
Q

Who is remote viewing said to be available to?

A

Anyone, as it needs no special training

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3
Q

Who do some people look to to obtain predictions about the future?

A

Psychics
Astrologers
Tarot Card Readers

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4
Q

Homeopathy

A

Alternative medicine

Built on 2 main doctrines

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5
Q

2 Main doctrines of homeopathy

A

“Like cures like” - symptoms of a sick person can be cured by substances that actually produce the same symptoms in healthy people

The smaller the dose of this substance, the mightier the healing effect

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6
Q

The Hundreth-Monkey Phenomenon

A

“With the hundreth monkey, a kind of critical mass had been reached, forcing a kind of group mind - It was bullshit/lies

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7
Q

What is the trouble with paranormal phenomena?

A

They’re not just normal. It’s not simply that they’re rare and unusual (which they are); it’s that they seem to violate the natural order of things.

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8
Q

Paradigm

A

A theoretical framework that determines what questions are worth asking and what methods should be used

All scientific investigation takes place within a paradigm

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9
Q

Science only advances how?

A

By recognizing and dealing with anomalies

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10
Q

Paradigm Shift

A

WHen no satisfactory account of a phenomena is forthcoming, the scientific community is forced to abandon the old paradigm and adopt a new one = shift

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11
Q

Paradigm shift examples

A

Geocentric view of solar system to heliocentic

Creationism to evolution

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12
Q

Necessary Truths

A

A claim that can’t possibly be false

Ex. 2+2 = 4, Red is a color

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13
Q

Necessary Falsehoods

A

A claim that can’t possibly be true

Ex. 2+2=5, Red is not a color

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14
Q

Laws of Thought

A

Made by aristotle

Systematizes our knowledge of necessary truths

  1. Law of Noncontradiction
  2. Law of Identity
  3. Law of Excluded Middle
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15
Q

The Law of Noncontradiction

A

Nothing can both have a property and lack it at the same time

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16
Q

The Law of Identity

A

Everything is identical to itself

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17
Q

The Law of Exluded Middle

A

For any particular property, everything either has it or lacks it

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18
Q

Reducio Ad Absurdum (Reduction to Absurdity)

A

One of the most effective techniques of refuting a position

If you can show that a position has absurd consequences, you’ve provided a powerful reason for rejecting it

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19
Q

Logically Impossible

A

Anything that violates the Laws of Thought

Anything that is logically impossible can’t exist

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20
Q

Self-Contradictory

A

Something that violates the law of noncontradiction

SOmething that attributes both a property and its negation to a thing

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21
Q

Physically Impossible

A

Anything that violates the laws of physics/laws of science

Anything that’s inconsistent with the laws of nature

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22
Q

Whatever is physically impossible is?

A

Logically possible

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23
Q

Not everything that’s logically possible is?

A

Physically possible

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24
Q

Technological Possibility

A

Something is technologically impossible if it is currently beyond our capabilities to accomplish

Ex. Galactic travel

Not physically impossible

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25
Q

Just because something is logically or physically possible doesn’t mean that…

A

It is, or ever will be, actual

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26
Q

Just because you can’t explain something doesn’t mean that…

A

It’s supernatural

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27
Q

When faced with something you don’t understand, the most rational course of action is…

A

To seek a natural explanation

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28
Q

It isn’t the phenomena themselves that contradict physical law, but rather…

A

Our theories about them

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29
Q

Fallacy of Composition

A

Believing that what is true of the parts is true of the whole

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30
Q

Precognition

A

Seeing into the future

Not only seems to be physically impossible, but also logically impossible

Goes against the principle of causality “An effect cannot precede its cause”

Commits us to an existing nonexistent, which is logically impossible

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31
Q

Tachyons

A

Particles that can travel faster than the speed of light

Theoretically travel backwards in time because they travel faster than light

Carrying negative energy backwards in time or positive energy forwards in time

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32
Q

The price of knowledge is…

A

Freedom

If someone knows that something is going to happen, it must happen. But if it must happen, then no one is free to prevent it from happening

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33
Q

The “Many Worlds Interpretation” of Quantum Mechanics

A

The view that everything that can happen does happen in a parallel universe

Physically impossible

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34
Q

A Medium

A

A person said to contact spirits

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35
Q

Just because something seems/feels/appears real…

A

Doesn’t mean that it is

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36
Q

Part of the task of critically evaluating an unusual claim is to…

A

Control our tendency to believe or disbelieve without good reason

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37
Q

We usually assume that what we see is reality. We are generally at great risk of being dead-wrong with such assumptions when…

A

1) Our experience is uncorroborated (no one else has shared our experience)
2) Our conclusions are at odds with all known previous experience
3) Any of the peculiarities of our minds could be at work

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38
Q

Which is correct?

A
  1. Our normal perceptions have a direct, one-to-one correspondence to external reality - that they are like photographs of the outer world
  2. Perception is constructive, that it’s in part something that our minds manufacture. Thus what we perceive is determined, not only by our sense, but also by what we know, expect, believe, and what our physiological state is.

2.

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39
Q

Perceptual Constancies

A

Our tendency to have certain perceptual experiences regardless of the relevant input from our senses

Some of the best illustrations of our constructive perception at work

  • Color Constany
  • Size Constancy
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40
Q

Color Constancy

A

People often perceive an object as a certain color because they know that the object is supposed to be that color, even if the object is not that color at all

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41
Q

Size Constancy

A

You perceive the size of familiar objects as rougly constant no matter how far away they are

Our knowledge of size constancy is learned - we are not born with it

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42
Q

What plays the coordinating role in collective hallucinations?

A

Expectation

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43
Q

What is a pre-requesite of collective hallucinations?

A

Emotional excitement

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44
Q

The Power of Expectancy

A

We sometimes perceive exactly what we expect to perceive, regardless of what’s real

If we’re normal, expectancy or suggestion can cause us to perceive what simply isn’t there - this is especially true when the stimulus is vague or ambiguous or when clear observation is difficult

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45
Q

Pareidolia

A

A type of illusion or misconception

We simply see a vague stimulus as something it’s not; we etch meaning into the meaningless

Ex. face on mars

“Backward Masking” - certain messages are placed on recordings backwards

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46
Q

Backward Masking

A

The belief that certain messages are placed on a recording backwards to mask their true meaning

“The brain will unconsciously decipher the message and be affected by it”

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47
Q

Macro-PK

A

An example of beliefs generated in circumstances that are known to create cognitive illusions

Ex. Spoon Bending

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48
Q

Eyewitness accounts are…

A

Generally unreliable because of the influence of expectancy and belief, the effects of stress, selective attention, memory construction, poor observational conditions, and other factors

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49
Q

What is the main reason scientists do not accept the Bigfoot claim?

A

It conflicts with what we already know

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50
Q

The Autokinetic Effect

A

This effect refers to how a small stationary light in the dark will be perceived as moving

UFO sightings are complicated by this

This perception happens even if the person’s head remains still

Caused by involuntary movements of the eye

Can be influenced by the opinion of others

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51
Q

What can the Autokinetic Effect be influenced by?

A

The opinions of others

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52
Q

No single object has been mistaken as a UFO more often than…

A

Venus

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53
Q

False Memory Syndrome

A

When a patient receives false memories that are mislabeled as recovered memories after going through recovered memory therapy (RMT)

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54
Q

How does our brain remember experiences via memory?

A

Our memories aren’t copies/records

Our brains reach for a representation of an experience, then piece by piece, they reconstruct a memory based on this fragment - it is usually inexact and vulnerable to bias

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55
Q

Cryptomnesia

A

Hidden memory

Refers to thoughts and ideas that seem new and original, but which are actually memories of things that you’ve forgotten you knew

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56
Q

Our memory of an event can be drastically changed if…

A

We later encounter new information about the event

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57
Q

Our memories are more than just constructive - they’re also…

A

Selective

We selectively remember and ignore certain things - this sets up a memory bias

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58
Q

Retrieval Cue

A

When one can’t remember a dream, but then something happens to them that retreives from long term memory what happened in the dream

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59
Q

Our success as a species is due in large part to…

A

Our ability to organize things into categories and to recognize patterns in the behavior of things

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60
Q

Forer Effect

A

The phenomenon of believing that a general personality description is unique to oneself

For the effect to work, people have to be told that the catchall description pinpoints them specifically

A case of subjective validation

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61
Q

What is the Forer Effect a case of?

A

Subjective validation

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62
Q

Confirmation Bias

A

The tendency to look for and recognize only evidence that confirms our views

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63
Q

What type of evidence do we tend to look for? Confirming or disconfirming?

A

Confirming

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64
Q

When evaluating a claim, look for …. as well as confirming evidence

A

Disconfirming evidence

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65
Q

What is one way to cut down on confirmation bias?

A

To keep a number of different hypotheses in mind when evaluating a claim

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66
Q

The Availability Error

A

Occurs when people base their judgements on the evidence that’s vivid or memorable instead of reliable or trustworthy

The confirmation bias can be exacerbated by this

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67
Q

What can exacerbate confirmation bias?

A

Availability error

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68
Q

The Fallacy of Hasty Generalization/The Failure to Consider Sample Size

A

Basing a judgement on psychologically available information

To make a judgement about a group of things on the basis of evidence concerning only a few members of that group

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69
Q

When confirming evidence is more psychologically compelling than disconfirming evidence, we are likely to exhibit…

A

Confirmation bias

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70
Q

When evaluating a claim, look at all the relevant evidence, not just the …

A

Psychologically available evidence

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71
Q

Superstition

A

A belief that an action or situation can have an effect on something even though there is no logical relation between the two

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72
Q

The Appeal to Ignorance

A

“Just because you can’t show that the supernatural or paranormal explanation is false doesn’t mean that it is true” - this reason is logically fallacious

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73
Q

The Representativeness Heuristic

A

Members of a category should resemble a prototype and that effects should resemble their causes

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74
Q

The Conjunction Fallacy

A

Linda Problem

Believing that the probability of 2 events occurring together is greater than 1 alone

“The probability of 2 events occurring together can never be greater than the probability of one of them occurring alone”

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75
Q

Out of a group of 23 people, what are the chances that 2 of those 23 have the same birthday?

A

Contrary to popular belief, there is a 50-50 chance

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76
Q

The Gamber’s Fallacy

A

The idea that previous events can affect the probabilities in a current random event

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77
Q

It’s reasonable to accept personal experience as reliable evidence only if…

A

There’s no reason to doubt its reliability

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78
Q

Science tries to remove the element of _____ from the scientific process

A

Unsystematic personal experience

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79
Q

Realists

A

People who do not believe that reality depends on our thoughts about it - it exists independantly from us

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80
Q

Relativists

A

People who believe that the way the world is depends on what we think about it - we create our own realities

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81
Q

Why is relativism so appealing?

A

Because people assume that realism entails absolutism - there is only one correct way to represent reality

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82
Q

Absolutism is considered morally objectionable because it leads to…

A

Intolerance

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83
Q

Solipsism

A

The idea that “I alone exist” and create all of reality

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84
Q

Since the supposition that our beliefs create reality leads to a logical contradiction, we must conclude that…

A

Reality is independent of our beliefs

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85
Q

Subjectivism

A

The view that each of us creates our own reality

“Sophists” - greatest = Protagoras

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86
Q

Just because you believe something to be true…

A

Doesn’t mean that it is

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87
Q

New Agers

A

People who believe that reality is socially constructed

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88
Q

What we believe is largely a function of…

A

The society in which we were raised

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89
Q

Just because a group of people believe that something is true…

A

Doesn’t mean that it is

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90
Q

The Fallacy of Appeal to the Masses

A

To justify our beliefs by claiming that everyone shares them

We cannot justify this because everyone may be mistaken

Groups are just as/more prone to error as individuals are

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91
Q

A Conceptual Scheme

A

A set of concepts for classifying objects

Provides categories into which the items of our experience can be placed

The world is a product of a conceptual scheme

Another word for Paradigm

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92
Q

Can paradigms be considered to be objectively better than any other?

A

No

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93
Q

2 types of observation

A

Recognition and discrimination

REcognition may involve the use of theory

DEscrimination does not

By keeping these 2 functions separate, the brain allows us to deal with the unexpected

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94
Q

What does translation require?

A

A common point of reference

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95
Q

What is the most serious flaw of relativism?

A

It’s self-refuting because its truth implies its falsity

There is no objective evidence, therefore there is no true/false

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96
Q

Truth isn’t relative to…

A

Individuals, societies, or conceptual schemes

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97
Q

Belief can be relative because…

A

Individuals, societies, and conceptual schemes often have different beliefs

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98
Q

There is an external reality that is…

A

Independent of our representations of it

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99
Q

Are personal characteristics relative to persons?

A

Yes

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100
Q

Are the effects that anything might have on a person relative to that person?

A

Yes

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101
Q

Are certain states of affairs relative to individuals?

A

Yes

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102
Q

Is the truth about certain states of affairs relative to individuals?

A

No

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103
Q

Knowledge is…

A

Power

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104
Q

Prediction and control are keys to survival, and ___ makes prediction and control possible

A

Knowledge

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105
Q

Astrology claims…

A

A causal relationship between the prohetic sign and the events to which they correspond

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106
Q

Propositional Knowledge

A

A true proposition; factual knowledge

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107
Q

___ is necessary for knowledge because we can’t know something that’s false, and if we know something, we can’t believe that it’s false

A

True belief

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108
Q

Reasons confer ___ on propositions. The better the reasons…

A

Probability

The more likely it is that the proposition they support is true

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109
Q

Philosophical Skeptics

A

People who believe that most of us are deluded about the actual extent of our knowledge

“We can’t know what isn’t certain”

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110
Q

To have knowledge, we must have adequate…

A

Evidence

111
Q

A proposition is beyond reasonable doubt when…

A

It provides the best explanation of something

112
Q

A claim doesn’t have to possess any particular degree of probability in order to be beyond a reasonable doubt. All that is required is that it explain the…

A

Evidence and account for it better than any of its competitors

113
Q

There is good reason to doubt a proposition if it…

A

Conflicts with other propositoons we have good reason to believe

114
Q

The more background information a proposition conflicts with…

A

The more reason there is to doubt it

115
Q

The structure of our belief system can be compared to that of a…

A

Tree

Just as certain branches support other branches, so certain beliefs support other beliefs

116
Q

When there is good reason to doubt a propositon…

A

We should proportion our belief to the evidence

117
Q

The range of proposition probability

A

Close to 0 = humans can walk through walls

1 = either it’s raining or it isn’t

118
Q

The opinions that are held with passion are always those for which…

A

No good ground exists

The passion is the measure of the holder’s lack of rational conviction

119
Q

Commensense Skepticism

A

Considers everything that lacks adequate evidence suspect

Does not consider everything that lacks certainty suspect

120
Q

There is good reason to doubt a proposition if it conflicts with…

A

Expert opinion

121
Q

Just because someone is an expert in one field doesn’t mean that he or she is…

A

An expert in another

122
Q

Fallacious Appeal to Authority

A

To cite a nonexpert as an expert

123
Q

When considering the opinions of others, we must always look for the presence of…

A

Bias

124
Q

If a proposition coheres with the rest of our beliefs, are we justified in believing it?

A

No

Just because a proposition coheres with our beliefs, it is not necessarily true

125
Q

What has traditionally been considered our most reliable guide to the truth?

A

Perception

126
Q

Perception is considered a source of knowledge about the _______

A

External world

127
Q

Introspection is considered a source of knowledge about the _____

A

Internal world

128
Q

Dispositional States

A

To be in them is to have a tendency to feel or do certain things under certain conditions

Ex. if you are afraid of snakes, you will have a tendency to feel fear if you see one

129
Q

Although much of what we know originates in introspection and perception, we have to rely on our ____ to preserve and retrieve that information

A

Memory

130
Q

Memory is also a source of knowledge, not in the sense of generating it, but in the sense of…

A

Transmitting it

131
Q

To understand a self-evident proposition is…

A

To believe that it’s true

132
Q

What are the traditional sources of knowledge?

A

Perception
Introspection
Memory
Reason

Not infallible guides to the truth as we can have different interpretations of them

133
Q

If we have no reason to doubt that’s disclosed to us through the traditional sources of knowledge…

A

Then we are justified in believing it

134
Q

Faith

A

Belief that does not rest on logical proof or material evidence

135
Q

Why can’t faith be a source of knowledge?

A

Since believing something on faith doesn’t help us determine the plausibility of a proposition

136
Q

Precursive Faith

A

“Although I have no evidence that you like me, if I believe that you do, you may come to do so”

137
Q

It’s our actions rather than our ___ that produce the desired results

A

Beliefs

138
Q

What do some people call “faith”?

A

“Mind viruses”

139
Q

Hypersensory Perception

A

The claim to know by intuition

Sherlock Holmes

140
Q

What is the difference between scientists and mystics?

A

Scientists use their senses

Mystics use their intuition

141
Q

Ineffable

A

The descriptions offered by a mystical experience cannot, by themselves, provide knowledge of what it’s like to have the experience

142
Q

When the nervous system is deprived of its normal level of sensory input, what will happen?

A

It will generate its own in the form of hallucinations

The sort of isolation experienced bu religious ascetics is sufficient to produce these effects

The self-denial and self-discipline practiced by mystics can have the same effects

143
Q

The California Personality Inventory (CPI)

A

A standard test for measuring personality

144
Q

What makes the claims of astrology so hard to swallow?

A

The difficulty of explaining how stars and planets could possibly influence our personalities and careers

145
Q

Why do many people find astrology appealing?

A

Because it seems to describe them accurately, however it seems to do so because the descriptions offered are so general that they apply to everybody

146
Q

What is the central focus of critical thinking?

A

The formation and evaluation of arguments

147
Q

Usually when we are critical thinking, what are we trying to do?

A

Devise arguments or assess them

148
Q

Argument

A

The combination of claims - a claim (or claims) supposedly giving reasons for accepting another claim

149
Q

Premises

A

To be more precise than an argument, claims (or reasons) intended to support another claim

150
Q

Conclusion

A

The claim that the premises are intended to support

151
Q

Indicator Words

A

Words that help distinguish arguments from nonarguments

Terms that oftan accompany arguments and signal that a conclusion or premise is nearby

Ex. “Because” and “Therefore”

152
Q

Common conclusion indicator words

A 
Thus
So
COnsequently
It follows that
Which means that
Hence
Therefore
As a result
We can conclude that
Which implies that
153
Q

Common premise indicator words

A 
Since
The reason being
Assuming that
For the reason that
For
Because
In view of the fact
Given that
As indicated by
Due to the fact that
154
Q

What is the minimum requirement for an argument?

A

At least one premise and a conclusion

155
Q

Argument structure

A
  1. An argument can have 1 premise or many
  2. The conclusion of an argument can appear after or before the premises
  3. An argument can be buried in a cluster of other statements that are not part of the argument
156
Q

What is the easiest way to identify an argument?

A

Find the conclusion first

157
Q

What is the difference between a good argument and a bad argument?

A

A good argument demonstrates that the conclusion is worthy of acceptance

A bad argument fails to demonstrate that a conclusion is worthy of acceptance

158
Q

Arguments can either be…

A

Deductive or Inductive

159
Q

Deductive Arguments

A

Arguments that are intended to provide conclusive support for their conclusions

160
Q

Inductive Arguments

A

Arguments intended to provide probable support for its conclusion

161
Q

A deductive argument that succeeds in providing conclusive support is said to be…

A

Valid

162
Q

What is a Valid Deductive Argument?

A

A deductive argument that succeeds in providing conclusive support

Has this characteristic: If its premises are true, its conclusion must be true

All men are mortal.
Socrates is a man.
Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

163
Q

What is an Invalid Deductive Argument?

A

A deductive argument that fails to provide conclusive support

If socrates is a dog, he is mortal.
Socrates is not a dog.
Therefore, Socrates is not mortal.

164
Q

The Conclusion Follows from the Premises

A

This is what we say when an argument is valid

165
Q

Truth-Preserving Argument

A

An argument is called this because a deductively valid argument guarantees the truth of the conclusion if the premises are true

166
Q

When is an inductive argument “strong”?

A

When it succeeds in giving probable support to its conclusion

If socrates is a man, he is most likely mortal.
He is a man.
THerefore, socrates is probably mortal.

167
Q

When is an inductive argument “weak”?

A

When it fails to provide probable support to its conclusion

168
Q

What is a “cogent” argument?

A

An inductively strong argument with true premises

169
Q

AFfirming the Antecedent (argument type)

A

If p then q.
p.
Therefore, q.

170
Q

Denying the COnsequent (argument type)

A

If p then q.
Not p.
Therefore, not p.

171
Q

What can a valid argument have and not have?

A

A valid argument can have:

  • False premises + false conclusion
  • False premises + true conclusion
  • True premises + true conclusion

The one thing it cannot have is:
-True premises + false conclusion

172
Q

Enumerative Induction

A

The sort of reasoning we use when we arrive at a generalization about a group of things after observing only some members of that group

X percent of the observed members of A are B.
Therefore, X percent of the entire group of A are B.

173
Q

When is a sample considered to be representative of a group?

A

When every member of the group has an equal chance to be part of the sample

174
Q

Analogical Induction

A

When we claim that two things that are similar in some respects are similar in some further respect

Object A has properties F,G,H etc. as well as the property Z.
Object B has properties F,G,H etc.
Therefore, object B probably has property Z.

175
Q

Inference to the Best Explanation (Abduction)

A

The most widely form of inference

Phenomena p.
If hypothesis h were true, it would provide the best explanation for p.
Therefore, it’s probable that h is true.

176
Q

When is an argument fallacious?

A

1) Unacceptable premises
2) Irrelevent premises
3) Insufficient premises

177
Q

When are premises irrelevant?

A

IF they have no bearing on the truth of the conclusion

178
Q

When are premises insufficient?

A

When they do not establish the conclusion beyond a resonable doubt

179
Q

When does an argument “Beg the Question”?

A

When it arguest in a circle; when it’s conclusion is used as one of its premises

180
Q

When does an argument propose a “False Dilemma”?

A

When it presumes that only 2 alternatives exist when in actuality there are more than 2

181
Q

When does “Equivocation” occur?

A

When a word is used in 2 different senses in an argument

182
Q

Emergent Property

A

A property had by a whole but not by its parts (opposite of fallacy of composition)

183
Q

The Fallacy of Division

A

The opposite of the Fallacy of Composition

It occurs when one assumes that what is true of a whole is also true of its parts

184
Q

Fallacy of Appeal to the Person (Ad Hominem)

A

When someone tries to rebut an argument by criticizing or denigrating its presenter rather than by dealing with the argument itself

185
Q

Genetic Fallacy

A

To argue that a claim is true or false on the basis of its origin

186
Q

Fallacy of Appeal to Authority

A

When one tries to support their views by citing experts, is only fallacious if the expert is not really an expert

187
Q

Fallacy of Appeal to the Masses

A

“It must be true because everybody believes it”

188
Q

Appeal to Tradition

A

“SOmething must be true because it is part of an established tradition”

189
Q

Appeal to Ignorance

A

2 varieties

Using an opponents inability to disporve a conclusion as proof of the conclusion’s correctness

Using an opponent’s inability to prove a conclusion as proof of its incorectness

190
Q

Fallacy of APpeal to Fear

A

To use the threat of harm to advance one’s position

ALso known as “Swinging the big stick”

191
Q

Fallacy of Hasty Generalization

A

Jumping to conclusions

When you draw a general conclusion about all things of a certain type on the basis of evidence concering only a few things of that type

192
Q

Fallacy of Faulty Analogy

A

Things that resemble one another in certain respects resemble one another in further respects

193
Q

Fallacy of False Cause (Post Hoc)

A

Consists of supposing that 2 events are causally connected when they are not

194
Q

What is the most powerful tool we have for acquiring knowledge?

A

The scientific method

195
Q

Difference between science and technology?

A

Science produces knowledge while tech produces goods

196
Q

What is the best indication for scientists that they know how something works?

A

That they can predict what it will do

197
Q

What proposition must be accepted before any scientific investigation can take place?

A

It must be publicly understandable

198
Q

Scientism

A

Committed to the view that the world is a great machine, composed of miniscule particles of matter that interact with each other like tiny billiard balls

199
Q

What 4 steps does the Scientific Method consist of?

A
  1. Observe
  2. Induce general hypotheses or possible explanations for what we have observed
  3. Deduce specific things that must also be true if our hypothesis is true
  4. Test the true hypothesis by checking out the deduced implications
200
Q

What is the goal of scientific inquiry?

A

To identify principles that are both explanatory and predictive

201
Q

Why are hypotheses needed in scientific observation?

A

Because they tell us what to look for

202
Q

What procedure can be considered scientific?

A

Any that serves systematically to eliminate reasonable grounds for doubt

203
Q

What are the results of scientific inquiry like?

A

Never final and conclusive, but are always provisional and open

204
Q

Can we conclusively confirm or refute a hypothesis?

A

No

205
Q

Zetic Law of Perspective

A

What makes the lower part of a ship disappear before the upper part due to atmospheric refraction

Constructs an Ad Hoc Hypothesis

206
Q

What does Ad Hoc mean?

A

For this case only

207
Q

What makes a hypothesis Ad Hoc?

A

It can’t be verified independently of the phenomenon it’s supposed to explain

208
Q

Phlogiston

A

A fake material that is considered to be an elastic fluid composed of particles that repel one another

209
Q

For a hypothesis to increase our knowledge, what must it do?

A

There must be some way to test it, otherwise we have no way of telling whether it’s true or not

210
Q

A hypothesis is scientific only if it is ___, that is, only if it predicts something more than what is predicted by the background theory alone

A

Testable

211
Q

What does a prediction tell us?

A

If certain conditions are realized, then certain results will be observed

212
Q

Fruitfulness

A

The ability of a hypothesis to successfully predict new phenomena and thus open up new lines of research

213
Q

Other things being equal, the best hypothesis is the one that is most ___, that is, makes the most successful novel predictions

A

Fruitful

214
Q

Scope of a hypothesis

A

The amount of diverse phenomena explained and predicted by it

215
Q

Other things being equal, the best hypothesis is the one that has the greatest ___, that is, that explains and predicts the most diverse phenomena

A

Scope

216
Q

Simpllicity of a hypothesis

A

The simpler of two hypotheses is the one that makes the fewest assumptions

The simpler a theory is, the more it unifies and systematizes our knowledge and the less likely it is to be false because there are fewer ways for it to go wrong

217
Q

Other things being equal, the best hypothesis is the ____ one, that is, the one that makes the fewest assumptions

A

Simplest

218
Q

Occam’s Razor

A

Do not multiply entities beyond necessity

Assume no more than is required to explain the phenomenon in question. If there’s no reason to assume that something exists, it’s irrational to do so

219
Q

Other things being equal, the best hypothesis that is the move ___ that is, the one that fits best with esablished beliefs

A

Conservative

220
Q

WHen is a hypothesis testable?

A

When it predicts something more than what is predicted by the background theory alone

221
Q

What is evolution’s major advantage over creationism?

A

Its scope

222
Q

WHat is creationism’s cope like?

A

Zero

223
Q

Micro-evolution

A

Genetic changes within a species

224
Q

Macro-evolution

A

Genetic changes from one species to another

225
Q

The Fallacy of False Dilemma

A

Presenting 2 alternatives as mutually exclusive when, in fact, they aren’t

226
Q

Parapsychology

A

The study of ESP and psychokinesis

227
Q

ESP

A

Extrasensory perception

Perception that is not mediated by an organism’s sensory organs

3 main types

228
Q

3 main types of ESP

A

Telepathy
Clairvoyance (distant objects)
Precognition

229
Q

Psychokinesis

A

The ability to affect physical objects without the use of of the body

230
Q

Why do so many of us believe that we have experienced ESP?

A

Because we are not good at estimating the probabilities of unlikely coincidences

231
Q

We should accept an extraordinary hypothesis only if…

A

No ordinary one will do

232
Q

Sheep-Goat Effect

A

The results of psi experiments are influenced by the attitudes of the experimenter. If the experimenter doubts the existence of psi (goat), the experiment will fail; if the experimenter believes in the existence of psi (a sheep), the experiment will succeed

233
Q

What is a meta-analysis?

A

A statistical procedure that combines the results of similar studies after first grading them in terms of quality. This allows researchers to determine whether significant results are correlated with poor quality.

234
Q

The file drawer effect

A

publishing space is limited and unsuccessful studies are not as noteworthy as successful ones. So successful studies often get filed away in a drawer somewhere.

235
Q

what procedure remains the most promising way to demonstrate the existence of psi?

A

The Ganzfeld procedure

236
Q

why do scientists include a placebo group in medical studies?

A

because of the risk of being misled by the placebo effect

The change is shown in the treatment group are compared to any changes in the placebo group to be considered effective, the treatment under study must do better than sugar pills or sham therapies

237
Q

what is the fallacy of false cause?

A

to fail to consider alternative explanations-including the variable and self limiting nature of illness, the placebo effect, and the presence of hidden causes

238
Q

The post hoc fallacy

A

The assumption that because something occurred after something else, it was caused by it

239
Q

weaseling

A

A writing trick used in many fields, including advertising, politics, and health journalism.

it’s the use of certain words called weasel words to weaken a claim so that the author can say something without actually saying it and be shielded from criticism

240
Q

case reports

A

accounts of a doctors observations of individual patients

they can be extremely valuable to other doctors and to medical scientist

241
Q

social desirability bias

A

The patients tendency to strongly wish to respond to treatment in what they have perceived as a correct way. People will sometimes report improvement in their condition after treatment simply because they think that’s the proper response or because they want to please the doctor

242
Q

investigator bias

A

this bias can come from doctors themselves

it refers to the well – documented fact that investigators or clinicians sometime see an effect in a patient because they want or expect to see it

243
Q

can case studies alone generally establish the effectiveness of a treatment

A

case studies alone generally cannot establish efectiveness of a treatment beyond a reasonable doubt

244
Q

When claims of a treatment’s effectiveness are bases solely on case studies or personal experience…

A

You generally cannot know that the treatment is effective

245
Q

The APpeal to Ancient Practice

A

“we know this treatment works because the repeated experience of generations shows that it does”

246
Q

The Appeal to Folklore

A

“We know this treatment words because the experience of social or cultural groups shows that it does”

247
Q

Scientific evidence gained through controlled experiments - unlike personal experience and case studies - generally…

A

Can establish the effectiveness of a treatment beyond a reasonable doubt

248
Q

Qackery

A

The promotion of false or unproven remedies for profit

249
Q

What is the basic unit of scientific research in medicine is the…

A

Study

250
Q

Scientific hypotheses are ___ statements - those whose truth can be confirmed by observation of the world

A

Empirical

251
Q

Can single medical studies generally establish the effectiveness of a treatment beyond a reasonable doubt?

A

No

252
Q

When the results of relevant studies conflict, you cannot know that…

A

The treatment in question is effective

253
Q

New study results that conflict with well-established findings..

A

Cannot establish the effectiveness of a treatment beyond a reasonable doubt

254
Q

In Vitro Experiments

A

Test-tube studies

Most fundamental kind of study

Generally, the chances of test-tube results being duplicated in humans is low

255
Q

Can test-tube studies alone establish the effectiveness of a treatment beyond a reasonable doubt?

A

No

256
Q

Animal Studies

A

Give scientists important leads in understanding human disease

257
Q

Can animal studies generally establish the effectiveness of a treatment beyond a reasonable doubt?

A

No

258
Q

Observational Studies

A

Studies based on observing human subjects (also called nonintervention/epidemiological studies)

Include several types of studies, such as cohort/cross-sectional

They do not intervene

The purpose is to search for revealing associations between disease or health and other key factors

259
Q

Can observational studies alone prove cause-and-effect relationships?

A

No

260
Q

Can observational studies alone generally establish the effectiveness of a treatment beyond a reasonable doubt?

A

No

261
Q

CLinical Trials

A

Trials with control groups

Utilizes blinding (good trials are double-blind)

262
Q

3 possible errors of clinical trials

A

1) lack of a control group
2) faulty comparisons
3) small numbers

263
Q

SEARCH acronym for inquiry

A
  1. State the claim
  2. Examine the Evidence for the claim
  3. Consider Alternative hypotheses
  4. Rate, according to the Criteria of adequacy, each Hypothesis
264
Q

Dowsing

A

The practice of detecing underground water by using a Y-shaped stick

A folk tradition from EUrope

265
Q

Ideometer action

A

The phenomenon of a person’s ideas creating in the body tiny muscular reactions that the person isn’t consciously aware of

This is how Dowsing works

266
Q

Research suggests that people who claim to have been abducted by aliens are in fact…

A

Fantasy-prone personalities

Sleep-related hallucinations happen more frequently to fantasy-prone people

267
Q

Temporal Lobe Lability

A

One’s temporal lobes are unstable and frequently surge with electrical activity

This causes people to report mystical or psychic experiences

268
Q

Channeling

A

The receiving of messages from a disembodied entity via a person

269
Q

Cold Reading

A

A trick that people use to appear paranormal

The psychic gleans information from people by asking them questions and making statements

270
Q

Identity Theory

A

The theory that mental states are brain states

271
Q

Scrying

A

Involves seeing visions in any clear object

272
Q

Ghosts

A

The spirits or souls of people who have died

273
Q

Hauntings

A

Ghosts that appear repeatedly at the same place and go through the same motions time and time again

274
Q

Apparitions

A

Ghosts that appear to interact with the people arround them

275
Q

Infrasound

A

The name given to sound waves whose frequency is below the limet of human hearing

Can generate ghost experiences

Psych 180 (5 decks)

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