How to think about weird things Flashcards
Remote Viewing
The alleged ability to acurately perceive information about distant geographical locations without using any sense
Precognitive Dream
A dream that seems to foretell the future
Who is remote viewing said to be available to?
Anyone, as it needs no special training
Who do some people look to to obtain predictions about the future?
Psychics
Astrologers
Tarot Card Readers
Homeopathy
Alternative medicine
Built on 2 main doctrines
2 Main doctrines of homeopathy
“Like cures like” - symptoms of a sick person can be cured by substances that actually produce the same symptoms in healthy people
The smaller the dose of this substance, the mightier the healing effect
The Hundreth-Monkey Phenomenon
“With the hundreth monkey, a kind of critical mass had been reached, forcing a kind of group mind - It was bullshit/lies
What is the trouble with paranormal phenomena?
They’re not just normal. It’s not simply that they’re rare and unusual (which they are); it’s that they seem to violate the natural order of things.
Paradigm
A theoretical framework that determines what questions are worth asking and what methods should be used
All scientific investigation takes place within a paradigm
Science only advances how?
By recognizing and dealing with anomalies
Paradigm Shift
WHen no satisfactory account of a phenomena is forthcoming, the scientific community is forced to abandon the old paradigm and adopt a new one = shift
Paradigm shift examples
Geocentric view of solar system to heliocentic
Creationism to evolution
Necessary Truths
A claim that can’t possibly be false
Ex. 2+2 = 4, Red is a color
Necessary Falsehoods
A claim that can’t possibly be true
Ex. 2+2=5, Red is not a color
Laws of Thought
Made by aristotle
Systematizes our knowledge of necessary truths
- Law of Noncontradiction
- Law of Identity
- Law of Excluded Middle
The Law of Noncontradiction
Nothing can both have a property and lack it at the same time
The Law of Identity
Everything is identical to itself
The Law of Exluded Middle
For any particular property, everything either has it or lacks it
Reducio Ad Absurdum (Reduction to Absurdity)
One of the most effective techniques of refuting a position
If you can show that a position has absurd consequences, you’ve provided a powerful reason for rejecting it
Logically Impossible
Anything that violates the Laws of Thought
Anything that is logically impossible can’t exist
Self-Contradictory
Something that violates the law of noncontradiction
SOmething that attributes both a property and its negation to a thing
Physically Impossible
Anything that violates the laws of physics/laws of science
Anything that’s inconsistent with the laws of nature
Whatever is physically impossible is?
Logically possible
Not everything that’s logically possible is?
Physically possible
Technological Possibility
Something is technologically impossible if it is currently beyond our capabilities to accomplish
Ex. Galactic travel
Not physically impossible
Just because something is logically or physically possible doesn’t mean that…
It is, or ever will be, actual
Just because you can’t explain something doesn’t mean that…
It’s supernatural
When faced with something you don’t understand, the most rational course of action is…
To seek a natural explanation
It isn’t the phenomena themselves that contradict physical law, but rather…
Our theories about them
Fallacy of Composition
Believing that what is true of the parts is true of the whole
Precognition
Seeing into the future
Not only seems to be physically impossible, but also logically impossible
Goes against the principle of causality “An effect cannot precede its cause”
Commits us to an existing nonexistent, which is logically impossible
Tachyons
Particles that can travel faster than the speed of light
Theoretically travel backwards in time because they travel faster than light
Carrying negative energy backwards in time or positive energy forwards in time
The price of knowledge is…
Freedom
If someone knows that something is going to happen, it must happen. But if it must happen, then no one is free to prevent it from happening
The “Many Worlds Interpretation” of Quantum Mechanics
The view that everything that can happen does happen in a parallel universe
Physically impossible
A Medium
A person said to contact spirits
Just because something seems/feels/appears real…
Doesn’t mean that it is
Part of the task of critically evaluating an unusual claim is to…
Control our tendency to believe or disbelieve without good reason
We usually assume that what we see is reality. We are generally at great risk of being dead-wrong with such assumptions when…
1) Our experience is uncorroborated (no one else has shared our experience)
2) Our conclusions are at odds with all known previous experience
3) Any of the peculiarities of our minds could be at work
Which is correct?
- Our normal perceptions have a direct, one-to-one correspondence to external reality - that they are like photographs of the outer world
- Perception is constructive, that it’s in part something that our minds manufacture. Thus what we perceive is determined, not only by our sense, but also by what we know, expect, believe, and what our physiological state is.
2.
Perceptual Constancies
Our tendency to have certain perceptual experiences regardless of the relevant input from our senses
Some of the best illustrations of our constructive perception at work
- Color Constany
- Size Constancy
Color Constancy
People often perceive an object as a certain color because they know that the object is supposed to be that color, even if the object is not that color at all
Size Constancy
You perceive the size of familiar objects as rougly constant no matter how far away they are
Our knowledge of size constancy is learned - we are not born with it
What plays the coordinating role in collective hallucinations?
Expectation
What is a pre-requesite of collective hallucinations?
Emotional excitement
The Power of Expectancy
We sometimes perceive exactly what we expect to perceive, regardless of what’s real
If we’re normal, expectancy or suggestion can cause us to perceive what simply isn’t there - this is especially true when the stimulus is vague or ambiguous or when clear observation is difficult
Pareidolia
A type of illusion or misconception
We simply see a vague stimulus as something it’s not; we etch meaning into the meaningless
Ex. face on mars
“Backward Masking” - certain messages are placed on recordings backwards
Backward Masking
The belief that certain messages are placed on a recording backwards to mask their true meaning
“The brain will unconsciously decipher the message and be affected by it”
Macro-PK
An example of beliefs generated in circumstances that are known to create cognitive illusions
Ex. Spoon Bending
Eyewitness accounts are…
Generally unreliable because of the influence of expectancy and belief, the effects of stress, selective attention, memory construction, poor observational conditions, and other factors
What is the main reason scientists do not accept the Bigfoot claim?
It conflicts with what we already know
The Autokinetic Effect
This effect refers to how a small stationary light in the dark will be perceived as moving
UFO sightings are complicated by this
This perception happens even if the person’s head remains still
Caused by involuntary movements of the eye
Can be influenced by the opinion of others
What can the Autokinetic Effect be influenced by?
The opinions of others
No single object has been mistaken as a UFO more often than…
Venus
False Memory Syndrome
When a patient receives false memories that are mislabeled as recovered memories after going through recovered memory therapy (RMT)
How does our brain remember experiences via memory?
Our memories aren’t copies/records
Our brains reach for a representation of an experience, then piece by piece, they reconstruct a memory based on this fragment - it is usually inexact and vulnerable to bias
Cryptomnesia
Hidden memory
Refers to thoughts and ideas that seem new and original, but which are actually memories of things that you’ve forgotten you knew
Our memory of an event can be drastically changed if…
We later encounter new information about the event
Our memories are more than just constructive - they’re also…
Selective
We selectively remember and ignore certain things - this sets up a memory bias
Retrieval Cue
When one can’t remember a dream, but then something happens to them that retreives from long term memory what happened in the dream
Our success as a species is due in large part to…
Our ability to organize things into categories and to recognize patterns in the behavior of things
Forer Effect
The phenomenon of believing that a general personality description is unique to oneself
For the effect to work, people have to be told that the catchall description pinpoints them specifically
A case of subjective validation
What is the Forer Effect a case of?
Subjective validation
Confirmation Bias
The tendency to look for and recognize only evidence that confirms our views
What type of evidence do we tend to look for? Confirming or disconfirming?
Confirming
When evaluating a claim, look for …. as well as confirming evidence
Disconfirming evidence
What is one way to cut down on confirmation bias?
To keep a number of different hypotheses in mind when evaluating a claim
The Availability Error
Occurs when people base their judgements on the evidence that’s vivid or memorable instead of reliable or trustworthy
The confirmation bias can be exacerbated by this
What can exacerbate confirmation bias?
Availability error
The Fallacy of Hasty Generalization/The Failure to Consider Sample Size
Basing a judgement on psychologically available information
To make a judgement about a group of things on the basis of evidence concerning only a few members of that group
When confirming evidence is more psychologically compelling than disconfirming evidence, we are likely to exhibit…
Confirmation bias
When evaluating a claim, look at all the relevant evidence, not just the …
Psychologically available evidence
Superstition
A belief that an action or situation can have an effect on something even though there is no logical relation between the two
The Appeal to Ignorance
“Just because you can’t show that the supernatural or paranormal explanation is false doesn’t mean that it is true” - this reason is logically fallacious
The Representativeness Heuristic
Members of a category should resemble a prototype and that effects should resemble their causes
The Conjunction Fallacy
Linda Problem
Believing that the probability of 2 events occurring together is greater than 1 alone
“The probability of 2 events occurring together can never be greater than the probability of one of them occurring alone”
Out of a group of 23 people, what are the chances that 2 of those 23 have the same birthday?
Contrary to popular belief, there is a 50-50 chance
The Gamber’s Fallacy
The idea that previous events can affect the probabilities in a current random event
It’s reasonable to accept personal experience as reliable evidence only if…
There’s no reason to doubt its reliability
Science tries to remove the element of _____ from the scientific process
Unsystematic personal experience
Realists
People who do not believe that reality depends on our thoughts about it - it exists independantly from us
Relativists
People who believe that the way the world is depends on what we think about it - we create our own realities
Why is relativism so appealing?
Because people assume that realism entails absolutism - there is only one correct way to represent reality
Absolutism is considered morally objectionable because it leads to…
Intolerance
Solipsism
The idea that “I alone exist” and create all of reality
Since the supposition that our beliefs create reality leads to a logical contradiction, we must conclude that…
Reality is independent of our beliefs
Subjectivism
The view that each of us creates our own reality
“Sophists” - greatest = Protagoras
Just because you believe something to be true…
Doesn’t mean that it is
New Agers
People who believe that reality is socially constructed
What we believe is largely a function of…
The society in which we were raised
Just because a group of people believe that something is true…
Doesn’t mean that it is
The Fallacy of Appeal to the Masses
To justify our beliefs by claiming that everyone shares them
We cannot justify this because everyone may be mistaken
Groups are just as/more prone to error as individuals are
A Conceptual Scheme
A set of concepts for classifying objects
Provides categories into which the items of our experience can be placed
The world is a product of a conceptual scheme
Another word for Paradigm
Can paradigms be considered to be objectively better than any other?
No
2 types of observation
Recognition and discrimination
REcognition may involve the use of theory
DEscrimination does not
By keeping these 2 functions separate, the brain allows us to deal with the unexpected
What does translation require?
A common point of reference
What is the most serious flaw of relativism?
It’s self-refuting because its truth implies its falsity
There is no objective evidence, therefore there is no true/false
Truth isn’t relative to…
Individuals, societies, or conceptual schemes
Belief can be relative because…
Individuals, societies, and conceptual schemes often have different beliefs
There is an external reality that is…
Independent of our representations of it
Are personal characteristics relative to persons?
Yes
Are the effects that anything might have on a person relative to that person?
Yes
Are certain states of affairs relative to individuals?
Yes
Is the truth about certain states of affairs relative to individuals?
No
Knowledge is…
Power
Prediction and control are keys to survival, and ___ makes prediction and control possible
Knowledge
Astrology claims…
A causal relationship between the prohetic sign and the events to which they correspond
Propositional Knowledge
A true proposition; factual knowledge
___ is necessary for knowledge because we can’t know something that’s false, and if we know something, we can’t believe that it’s false
True belief
Reasons confer ___ on propositions. The better the reasons…
Probability
The more likely it is that the proposition they support is true
Philosophical Skeptics
People who believe that most of us are deluded about the actual extent of our knowledge
“We can’t know what isn’t certain”
To have knowledge, we must have adequate…
Evidence
A proposition is beyond reasonable doubt when…
It provides the best explanation of something
A claim doesn’t have to possess any particular degree of probability in order to be beyond a reasonable doubt. All that is required is that it explain the…
Evidence and account for it better than any of its competitors
There is good reason to doubt a proposition if it…
Conflicts with other propositoons we have good reason to believe
The more background information a proposition conflicts with…
The more reason there is to doubt it
The structure of our belief system can be compared to that of a…
Tree
Just as certain branches support other branches, so certain beliefs support other beliefs
When there is good reason to doubt a propositon…
We should proportion our belief to the evidence
The range of proposition probability
Close to 0 = humans can walk through walls
1 = either it’s raining or it isn’t
The opinions that are held with passion are always those for which…
No good ground exists
The passion is the measure of the holder’s lack of rational conviction
Commensense Skepticism
Considers everything that lacks adequate evidence suspect
Does not consider everything that lacks certainty suspect
There is good reason to doubt a proposition if it conflicts with…
Expert opinion
Just because someone is an expert in one field doesn’t mean that he or she is…
An expert in another
Fallacious Appeal to Authority
To cite a nonexpert as an expert
When considering the opinions of others, we must always look for the presence of…
Bias
If a proposition coheres with the rest of our beliefs, are we justified in believing it?
No
Just because a proposition coheres with our beliefs, it is not necessarily true
What has traditionally been considered our most reliable guide to the truth?
Perception
Perception is considered a source of knowledge about the _______
External world
Introspection is considered a source of knowledge about the _____
Internal world
Dispositional States
To be in them is to have a tendency to feel or do certain things under certain conditions
Ex. if you are afraid of snakes, you will have a tendency to feel fear if you see one
Although much of what we know originates in introspection and perception, we have to rely on our ____ to preserve and retrieve that information
Memory
Memory is also a source of knowledge, not in the sense of generating it, but in the sense of…
Transmitting it
To understand a self-evident proposition is…
To believe that it’s true
What are the traditional sources of knowledge?
Perception
Introspection
Memory
Reason
Not infallible guides to the truth as we can have different interpretations of them
If we have no reason to doubt that’s disclosed to us through the traditional sources of knowledge…
Then we are justified in believing it
Faith
Belief that does not rest on logical proof or material evidence
Why can’t faith be a source of knowledge?
Since believing something on faith doesn’t help us determine the plausibility of a proposition
Precursive Faith
“Although I have no evidence that you like me, if I believe that you do, you may come to do so”
It’s our actions rather than our ___ that produce the desired results
Beliefs
What do some people call “faith”?
“Mind viruses”
Hypersensory Perception
The claim to know by intuition
Sherlock Holmes
What is the difference between scientists and mystics?
Scientists use their senses
Mystics use their intuition
Ineffable
The descriptions offered by a mystical experience cannot, by themselves, provide knowledge of what it’s like to have the experience
When the nervous system is deprived of its normal level of sensory input, what will happen?
It will generate its own in the form of hallucinations
The sort of isolation experienced bu religious ascetics is sufficient to produce these effects
The self-denial and self-discipline practiced by mystics can have the same effects
The California Personality Inventory (CPI)
A standard test for measuring personality
What makes the claims of astrology so hard to swallow?
The difficulty of explaining how stars and planets could possibly influence our personalities and careers
Why do many people find astrology appealing?
Because it seems to describe them accurately, however it seems to do so because the descriptions offered are so general that they apply to everybody
What is the central focus of critical thinking?
The formation and evaluation of arguments
Usually when we are critical thinking, what are we trying to do?
Devise arguments or assess them
Argument
The combination of claims - a claim (or claims) supposedly giving reasons for accepting another claim
Premises
To be more precise than an argument, claims (or reasons) intended to support another claim
Conclusion
The claim that the premises are intended to support
Indicator Words
Words that help distinguish arguments from nonarguments
Terms that oftan accompany arguments and signal that a conclusion or premise is nearby
Ex. “Because” and “Therefore”
Common conclusion indicator words
Thus So COnsequently It follows that Which means that Hence Therefore As a result We can conclude that Which implies that
Common premise indicator words
Since The reason being Assuming that For the reason that For Because In view of the fact Given that As indicated by Due to the fact that
What is the minimum requirement for an argument?
At least one premise and a conclusion
Argument structure
- An argument can have 1 premise or many
- The conclusion of an argument can appear after or before the premises
- An argument can be buried in a cluster of other statements that are not part of the argument
What is the easiest way to identify an argument?
Find the conclusion first
What is the difference between a good argument and a bad argument?
A good argument demonstrates that the conclusion is worthy of acceptance
A bad argument fails to demonstrate that a conclusion is worthy of acceptance
Arguments can either be…
Deductive or Inductive
Deductive Arguments
Arguments that are intended to provide conclusive support for their conclusions
Inductive Arguments
Arguments intended to provide probable support for its conclusion
A deductive argument that succeeds in providing conclusive support is said to be…
Valid
What is a Valid Deductive Argument?
A deductive argument that succeeds in providing conclusive support
Has this characteristic: If its premises are true, its conclusion must be true
All men are mortal.
Socrates is a man.
Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
What is an Invalid Deductive Argument?
A deductive argument that fails to provide conclusive support
If socrates is a dog, he is mortal.
Socrates is not a dog.
Therefore, Socrates is not mortal.
The Conclusion Follows from the Premises
This is what we say when an argument is valid
Truth-Preserving Argument
An argument is called this because a deductively valid argument guarantees the truth of the conclusion if the premises are true
When is an inductive argument “strong”?
When it succeeds in giving probable support to its conclusion
If socrates is a man, he is most likely mortal.
He is a man.
THerefore, socrates is probably mortal.
When is an inductive argument “weak”?
When it fails to provide probable support to its conclusion
What is a “cogent” argument?
An inductively strong argument with true premises
AFfirming the Antecedent (argument type)
If p then q.
p.
Therefore, q.
Denying the COnsequent (argument type)
If p then q.
Not p.
Therefore, not p.
What can a valid argument have and not have?
A valid argument can have:
- False premises + false conclusion
- False premises + true conclusion
- True premises + true conclusion
The one thing it cannot have is:
-True premises + false conclusion
Enumerative Induction
The sort of reasoning we use when we arrive at a generalization about a group of things after observing only some members of that group
X percent of the observed members of A are B.
Therefore, X percent of the entire group of A are B.
When is a sample considered to be representative of a group?
When every member of the group has an equal chance to be part of the sample
Analogical Induction
When we claim that two things that are similar in some respects are similar in some further respect
Object A has properties F,G,H etc. as well as the property Z.
Object B has properties F,G,H etc.
Therefore, object B probably has property Z.
Inference to the Best Explanation (Abduction)
The most widely form of inference
Phenomena p.
If hypothesis h were true, it would provide the best explanation for p.
Therefore, it’s probable that h is true.
When is an argument fallacious?
1) Unacceptable premises
2) Irrelevent premises
3) Insufficient premises
When are premises irrelevant?
IF they have no bearing on the truth of the conclusion
When are premises insufficient?
When they do not establish the conclusion beyond a resonable doubt
When does an argument “Beg the Question”?
When it arguest in a circle; when it’s conclusion is used as one of its premises
When does an argument propose a “False Dilemma”?
When it presumes that only 2 alternatives exist when in actuality there are more than 2
When does “Equivocation” occur?
When a word is used in 2 different senses in an argument
Emergent Property
A property had by a whole but not by its parts (opposite of fallacy of composition)
The Fallacy of Division
The opposite of the Fallacy of Composition
It occurs when one assumes that what is true of a whole is also true of its parts
Fallacy of Appeal to the Person (Ad Hominem)
When someone tries to rebut an argument by criticizing or denigrating its presenter rather than by dealing with the argument itself
Genetic Fallacy
To argue that a claim is true or false on the basis of its origin
Fallacy of Appeal to Authority
When one tries to support their views by citing experts, is only fallacious if the expert is not really an expert
Fallacy of Appeal to the Masses
“It must be true because everybody believes it”
Appeal to Tradition
“SOmething must be true because it is part of an established tradition”
Appeal to Ignorance
2 varieties
Using an opponents inability to disporve a conclusion as proof of the conclusion’s correctness
Using an opponent’s inability to prove a conclusion as proof of its incorectness
Fallacy of APpeal to Fear
To use the threat of harm to advance one’s position
ALso known as “Swinging the big stick”
Fallacy of Hasty Generalization
Jumping to conclusions
When you draw a general conclusion about all things of a certain type on the basis of evidence concering only a few things of that type
Fallacy of Faulty Analogy
Things that resemble one another in certain respects resemble one another in further respects
Fallacy of False Cause (Post Hoc)
Consists of supposing that 2 events are causally connected when they are not
What is the most powerful tool we have for acquiring knowledge?
The scientific method
Difference between science and technology?
Science produces knowledge while tech produces goods
What is the best indication for scientists that they know how something works?
That they can predict what it will do
What proposition must be accepted before any scientific investigation can take place?
It must be publicly understandable
Scientism
Committed to the view that the world is a great machine, composed of miniscule particles of matter that interact with each other like tiny billiard balls
What 4 steps does the Scientific Method consist of?
- Observe
- Induce general hypotheses or possible explanations for what we have observed
- Deduce specific things that must also be true if our hypothesis is true
- Test the true hypothesis by checking out the deduced implications
What is the goal of scientific inquiry?
To identify principles that are both explanatory and predictive
Why are hypotheses needed in scientific observation?
Because they tell us what to look for
What procedure can be considered scientific?
Any that serves systematically to eliminate reasonable grounds for doubt
What are the results of scientific inquiry like?
Never final and conclusive, but are always provisional and open
Can we conclusively confirm or refute a hypothesis?
No
Zetic Law of Perspective
What makes the lower part of a ship disappear before the upper part due to atmospheric refraction
Constructs an Ad Hoc Hypothesis
What does Ad Hoc mean?
For this case only
What makes a hypothesis Ad Hoc?
It can’t be verified independently of the phenomenon it’s supposed to explain
Phlogiston
A fake material that is considered to be an elastic fluid composed of particles that repel one another
For a hypothesis to increase our knowledge, what must it do?
There must be some way to test it, otherwise we have no way of telling whether it’s true or not
A hypothesis is scientific only if it is ___, that is, only if it predicts something more than what is predicted by the background theory alone
Testable
What does a prediction tell us?
If certain conditions are realized, then certain results will be observed
Fruitfulness
The ability of a hypothesis to successfully predict new phenomena and thus open up new lines of research
Other things being equal, the best hypothesis is the one that is most ___, that is, makes the most successful novel predictions
Fruitful
Scope of a hypothesis
The amount of diverse phenomena explained and predicted by it
Other things being equal, the best hypothesis is the one that has the greatest ___, that is, that explains and predicts the most diverse phenomena
Scope
Simpllicity of a hypothesis
The simpler of two hypotheses is the one that makes the fewest assumptions
The simpler a theory is, the more it unifies and systematizes our knowledge and the less likely it is to be false because there are fewer ways for it to go wrong
Other things being equal, the best hypothesis is the ____ one, that is, the one that makes the fewest assumptions
Simplest
Occam’s Razor
Do not multiply entities beyond necessity
Assume no more than is required to explain the phenomenon in question. If there’s no reason to assume that something exists, it’s irrational to do so
Other things being equal, the best hypothesis that is the move ___ that is, the one that fits best with esablished beliefs
Conservative
WHen is a hypothesis testable?
When it predicts something more than what is predicted by the background theory alone
What is evolution’s major advantage over creationism?
Its scope
WHat is creationism’s cope like?
Zero
Micro-evolution
Genetic changes within a species
Macro-evolution
Genetic changes from one species to another
The Fallacy of False Dilemma
Presenting 2 alternatives as mutually exclusive when, in fact, they aren’t
Parapsychology
The study of ESP and psychokinesis
ESP
Extrasensory perception
Perception that is not mediated by an organism’s sensory organs
3 main types
3 main types of ESP
Telepathy
Clairvoyance (distant objects)
Precognition
Psychokinesis
The ability to affect physical objects without the use of of the body
Why do so many of us believe that we have experienced ESP?
Because we are not good at estimating the probabilities of unlikely coincidences
We should accept an extraordinary hypothesis only if…
No ordinary one will do
Sheep-Goat Effect
The results of psi experiments are influenced by the attitudes of the experimenter. If the experimenter doubts the existence of psi (goat), the experiment will fail; if the experimenter believes in the existence of psi (a sheep), the experiment will succeed
What is a meta-analysis?
A statistical procedure that combines the results of similar studies after first grading them in terms of quality. This allows researchers to determine whether significant results are correlated with poor quality.
The file drawer effect
publishing space is limited and unsuccessful studies are not as noteworthy as successful ones. So successful studies often get filed away in a drawer somewhere.
what procedure remains the most promising way to demonstrate the existence of psi?
The Ganzfeld procedure
why do scientists include a placebo group in medical studies?
because of the risk of being misled by the placebo effect
The change is shown in the treatment group are compared to any changes in the placebo group to be considered effective, the treatment under study must do better than sugar pills or sham therapies
what is the fallacy of false cause?
to fail to consider alternative explanations-including the variable and self limiting nature of illness, the placebo effect, and the presence of hidden causes
The post hoc fallacy
The assumption that because something occurred after something else, it was caused by it
weaseling
A writing trick used in many fields, including advertising, politics, and health journalism.
it’s the use of certain words called weasel words to weaken a claim so that the author can say something without actually saying it and be shielded from criticism
case reports
accounts of a doctors observations of individual patients
they can be extremely valuable to other doctors and to medical scientist
social desirability bias
The patients tendency to strongly wish to respond to treatment in what they have perceived as a correct way. People will sometimes report improvement in their condition after treatment simply because they think that’s the proper response or because they want to please the doctor
investigator bias
this bias can come from doctors themselves
it refers to the well – documented fact that investigators or clinicians sometime see an effect in a patient because they want or expect to see it
can case studies alone generally establish the effectiveness of a treatment
case studies alone generally cannot establish efectiveness of a treatment beyond a reasonable doubt
When claims of a treatment’s effectiveness are bases solely on case studies or personal experience…
You generally cannot know that the treatment is effective
The APpeal to Ancient Practice
“we know this treatment works because the repeated experience of generations shows that it does”
The Appeal to Folklore
“We know this treatment words because the experience of social or cultural groups shows that it does”
Scientific evidence gained through controlled experiments - unlike personal experience and case studies - generally…
Can establish the effectiveness of a treatment beyond a reasonable doubt
Qackery
The promotion of false or unproven remedies for profit
What is the basic unit of scientific research in medicine is the…
Study
Scientific hypotheses are ___ statements - those whose truth can be confirmed by observation of the world
Empirical
Can single medical studies generally establish the effectiveness of a treatment beyond a reasonable doubt?
No
When the results of relevant studies conflict, you cannot know that…
The treatment in question is effective
New study results that conflict with well-established findings..
Cannot establish the effectiveness of a treatment beyond a reasonable doubt
In Vitro Experiments
Test-tube studies
Most fundamental kind of study
Generally, the chances of test-tube results being duplicated in humans is low
Can test-tube studies alone establish the effectiveness of a treatment beyond a reasonable doubt?
No
Animal Studies
Give scientists important leads in understanding human disease
Can animal studies generally establish the effectiveness of a treatment beyond a reasonable doubt?
No
Observational Studies
Studies based on observing human subjects (also called nonintervention/epidemiological studies)
Include several types of studies, such as cohort/cross-sectional
They do not intervene
The purpose is to search for revealing associations between disease or health and other key factors
Can observational studies alone prove cause-and-effect relationships?
No
Can observational studies alone generally establish the effectiveness of a treatment beyond a reasonable doubt?
No
CLinical Trials
Trials with control groups
Utilizes blinding (good trials are double-blind)
3 possible errors of clinical trials
1) lack of a control group
2) faulty comparisons
3) small numbers
SEARCH acronym for inquiry
- State the claim
- Examine the Evidence for the claim
- Consider Alternative hypotheses
- Rate, according to the Criteria of adequacy, each Hypothesis
Dowsing
The practice of detecing underground water by using a Y-shaped stick
A folk tradition from EUrope
Ideometer action
The phenomenon of a person’s ideas creating in the body tiny muscular reactions that the person isn’t consciously aware of
This is how Dowsing works
Research suggests that people who claim to have been abducted by aliens are in fact…
Fantasy-prone personalities
Sleep-related hallucinations happen more frequently to fantasy-prone people
Temporal Lobe Lability
One’s temporal lobes are unstable and frequently surge with electrical activity
This causes people to report mystical or psychic experiences
Channeling
The receiving of messages from a disembodied entity via a person
Cold Reading
A trick that people use to appear paranormal
The psychic gleans information from people by asking them questions and making statements
Identity Theory
The theory that mental states are brain states
Scrying
Involves seeing visions in any clear object
Ghosts
The spirits or souls of people who have died
Hauntings
Ghosts that appear repeatedly at the same place and go through the same motions time and time again
Apparitions
Ghosts that appear to interact with the people arround them
Infrasound
The name given to sound waves whose frequency is below the limet of human hearing
Can generate ghost experiences
