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Human Biology Y12 > hominid evolution > Flashcards

hominid evolution Flashcards

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1
Q

order

A

Primates:
Primates include tarsiers, lemurs, lorises, monkeys, apes and humans

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2
Q

Family

A

Hominidae
Hominids include all modern and extinct orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees and humans

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3
Q

Tribe*

A

Homini:
Hominins include extinct ancestors of humans and modern humans

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4
Q

Genus

A

Homo:
Homo includes some extinct ancestors of humans and modern humans

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5
Q

Species

A

sapiens:
Homo sapiens are modern humans

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6
Q

are there a singular characteristic that can be used to separate the primates from all other mammals

A

no

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7
Q

what are most features of a primate a result of?

A

having evolved in an arboreal, or tree-like, environment.

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8
Q

primate characteristics: body

A

not specialised for a particular environment

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9
Q

primate characteristics: limbs

A

Generally unspecialised

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10
Q

primate characteristics: hands/feet

A

Pentadactyl - five fingers or toes
Nails instead of claws
Grasping fingers and toes with friction ridges for gripping
First digit opposable

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11
Q

primate characteristics: eyes

A

Forward facing for three-dimensional (stereoscopic) vision
Most are able to distinguish colour

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12
Q

primate characteristics: Sense of smell

A

Very poor

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13
Q

primate characteristics: Teeth

A

Four incisors in both the upper and lower jaw

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14
Q

primate characteristics: Brain

A

Large and complex
Cerebrum size increases as primates become more highly evolved

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15
Q

primate characteristics: Reproduction

A

Not restricted to a breeding season
Rhythmical sexual cycle
Usually only one offspring at a time
Long period of parental care for offspring

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16
Q

humans are in same family as?

A

great apes (orang, chimp, gorilla, bonobos)

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17
Q

characteristics all species in the family Hominidae share

A
  • larger, more complex brain than other primates → increase cognitive ability → recognise self in a mirror
  • five cusps in the molar teeth of the lower jaw as diet was mainly fruit
  • arms that can freely rotate at the shoulder
  • wide, shallow chest cavity
  • no external tail
  • an appendix
  • diurnal (active during the day)
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18
Q

variations that reflect changes in the DNA nucleotide sequences during evolution

A
  • relative size of the cerebral cortex
  • mobility of digits
  • locomotion – adaptions to bipedalism and quadrupedalism
  • prognathism and dentition
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19
Q

the cerebrum progressively ___________ in size

A

increased (especially cerebral cortex)

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20
Q

change in cerebrum size results

A
  • higher-order functions (vision, memory, reasoning, manipulative ability)
    • necessary to cope successfully with environmental change
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21
Q

why did primates have large brains for their body size

A
  • due to tree dwelling environment
    • pressure of natural selection in arboreal environ. → favoured more accurate visual and tactile perception, better coordination b/w sensory stimuli + muscular response
      • reliance on vision to move, locate and manipulate food → large amount of complex sensory info to be processed and stored (carried out by cerebral cortex)
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22
Q

apes average cerebral cortex size

A

b/w 400-500 cm

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23
Q

which lobe had the greatest enlargement in surface area and why?

A

frontal lobe; higher functions – thinking, reasoning, planning

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24
Q

Pattern of convolutions (folds) purpose

A

Enable surface area of brain to be increased

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25
Q

Effect on life of primates due to increase in size of CC

A
  • Move around and locate food
  • Develop social skills
  • Tool making
    • Involves predetermine image of what completed tool should look like (higher skill)
  • Greater variety of behavioural responses to meet variety of problems
    • Most primate species → daily life involves interactions with relatives, allies, adversaries
      • Mutual cleaning and grooming → reinforce relationships
      • Threats → lead to fighting → maintain hierarchy of dominance
    • Behavioural flexibility taken place of further physical specialisation
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26
Q

was the Early hominin brain fossilised

A

no

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27
Q

endocast

A

an impression of the inside of the brain case, either artificial or natural, made of rock or some other solid material

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28
Q

purpose of endocast

A

determine brain size by measuring volume inside cranium using an endocast = cranial capacity

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29
Q

two areas of the brain have become highly developed in modern humans

A
  • broca’s area
  • wernicke’s area
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30
Q

broca’s area

A

speech production
Controls the muscles of the lips, jaw, tongue, soft palate and vocal cords during speech

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31
Q

wernicke’s area

A

comprehension of language - ability to listen

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32
Q

Pentadactyl

A

5 digits on each limb

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33
Q

Digits are highly mobile why?

A

related to arboreal way of life

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34
Q

why are prehensile digits essential?

A

essential for climbing, wrapping long curved digits around branches of trees

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35
Q

Evolutionary trend of the mobility of digits

A

increasing ability to move digits independently of one another

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36
Q

which digits were most highly developed

A

Thumb and big toe

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37
Q

Opposability

A

first digit can be moved in such a way that it can touch each of the other digits

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38
Q

what does opposability depend on

A

Depends on relative length of the first digital compared to other four

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39
Q

how did primates lose opposability

A

Lost opposability when human foot became weight bearing rather than grasping

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40
Q

precision grip

A

Humans have longest thumb of all primates → allows us to manipulate objects with our hands

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41
Q

quadrupedalism

A

walking on four limbs

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42
Q

bipedalism

A

walking on two legs

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43
Q

bipedalism is an adaptation that…

A

that helps human ancestors to survive → acted as a selective pressure during natural selection

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44
Q

Foramen magnum

A

where the brain joins the spinal cord through a hole in the skill

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45
Q

what happened to the foramen magnum due to evolution

A

Gradually moved forward to become more central (due to evolution of modern humans)
- Allows skull to balance of top of vertebral column

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46
Q

Gorilla foramen magnum position

A

needs large neck muscles to hold head in position

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47
Q

humans foramen magnum position

A

weight of skull is born by vertebral column→ large neck muscles not required

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48
Q

Curvature of the SC Evolution (structure)

A

Smooth C shaped curve (apes like gorillas) → evolved to S shaped curve (double curvature)

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49
Q

curvature of the SC Evolution results

A

allow upright posture
- Improves body balance in upright position
- Enable head to balance on top of neck

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50
Q

jaw for apes and humans

A
  • Apes = protruding jaw (prognathism)
  • Humans = flatter facial profile
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51
Q

evolution effects on the jaw

A
  • Size and protrusion reduced due to evolution
  • Allows the skull to balance on the top of the spine (weight in front of FM is = to weight behind it)
    • Balanced achieved with min of muscular effort
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52
Q

humans pelvis structure

A

broader, shorter from top to bottom, bowl shaped

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53
Q

humans pelvis benefits

A
  • Bowl shaped supports abdominal organs when standing erect
    • Provides greater stability for bipedal locomotion
    • Supports developing foetus during pregnancy
  • Broad hip bones provide space for attachment of large buttock muscles → move legs; keep upper body erect
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54
Q

the carrying angle

A

shape and orientation of the pelvis → hip joint being directly under the trunk and head

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55
Q

what does the carrying angle allow for?

A
  • Allows the weight of the body to be transferred from pelvis → legs
  • Allows for greater stability in an upright posture
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56
Q

changes to femur due to evolution

A
  • Head of femur is larger, fits into acetabulum of pelvis
  • Pelvis is broad → hip sockets wide apart→ femurs converge towards knees
    • Femur arrangement forms angle to the vertical = carrying angle
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57
Q

weight distribution due to changes to femurs

A
  • Ensures the weight distribution remains close to the central axis of the body when walking
  • Weight tends to fall through the outside of femur (reverse in apes)
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58
Q

what does walking enable?

A
  • enables the body to be rotated about the lower leg and foot; each footstep follows a near straight line
    • Allows humans to have a striding gait instead of swaying from side to side like gorillas or chimps when walking on two legs
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59
Q

knee adaptation

A
  • Bipedal species = weight of body transmitted down outside of femur → knee
  • Knee joint = two-part hinge joint
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60
Q

Natural resistance

A

produces a joint that requires no energy to support body in a standing position

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61
Q

Centre of gravity

A

Centre of gravity of body tends to fall through a line just in front of knees → results in force that tried to bend knee backwards but resisted by knee ligaments

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62
Q

how is body weight transmitted at the ankle

A

From knee joint, most of body weight transferred through tibia → ankle
BW transmitted from tibia through talus (ankle bone) → other tarsal bones → metatarsals → phalanges via arches of foot

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63
Q

Human foot distinctive adaptation for bipedal locomotion

A
  • Lost its grasping ability/prehensibility – now a highly specialised locomotory organ
    • Seen in big toe
  • Metatarsals shapes to form two arches (enabled humans to perfect bipedal locomotion)
    • Longitudinal arch (front to back)
    • Transverse arch (side to side)
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64
Q

effects of humans having longer legs than arms

A
  • Long legs increase length of stride when walking
  • Serve to lower centre of gravity of body (point at which all the weight of the body appears to be concentrated) – pelvis level
    • Contributes to stability when moving bipedally/standing erect
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65
Q

location of centre of gravity for apes and humans

A

apes: Higher centre of gravity (chest level)
humans: lower centre of gravity (pelvis level)

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66
Q

Muscle tone

A

partial contraction of skeletal muscles

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67
Q

muscle tone example

A

To keep the head, erect and stop it from slumping forward onto chest → muscles in back of neck are partially contracted (have tone)

68
Q

Sustained muscle tone is evident in which muscles?

A
  • muscles that support the body in an upright position
    • Muscles in humans = those that bring about movement of the spine, hip, knee and ankle, Abdo muscles
69
Q

Striding gait

A

walking upright in such a way that the hip and knee are full straightened

70
Q

other apes gait

A

Even when walking on their hind legs – knees bent, and bodies bent forward at hips

71
Q

Process of locomotion

A
  • Foot hits ground → weight transmitted from heel along outside of foot as far as the ball, crosses the ball of the foot (via transverse arch) → borne by the big toe
  • Final moment of striding = whole weight of body propelled by the big toe
72
Q

Reason why hominins lost opposability of the big toe

A

human foot evolved into a weight-bearing appendage rather than grasping

73
Q

Walking (rotation)

A
  • trunk rotates about the pelvis
  • forward swinging of the arms compensates for this natural rotation of the body: right arm naturally swings forward as the left leg is extended
    • keeps shoulders at right angles to the direction of travel
    • reduces amount of energy expended
    • if arms didn’t move → energy wasted in reversing the rotation of the body after each stride
74
Q

Advantages of bipedalism

A
  • more energy efficient means of moving
  • leaves hands free to use tools
  • leave hands free to carry items e.g. food
  • increased size deterring predators
  • higher reacher when picking fruit from trees
  • upright stance achieved greater height and thus the ability to see further for detecting predators
  • upright stance means that less of the body is exposed to sunlight → less overheating
  • upright stance increased exposure to breezes, increasing cooling mechanisms
75
Q

primates: two sets of teeth

A
  • deciduous (baby teeth)
  • permanent
76
Q

dental formula

A

number of each type of tooth that a species has
- gives the no. of each type of tooth in ¼ of jaw

77
Q

primitive mammals: dental formula

A

44 teeth; 3 incisors, 1 canine, 4 pre-molars and 3 molars on each side of jaw

78
Q

Old world monkeys, apes’ humans: dental formula

A

32 teeth; 2 incisors, 1 canine, 2 premolar, 3 molar

79
Q

teeth - Natural selection

A
  • decrease in no. of other in primates compared to early mammals
    • Gradual reduction in the size of the face and jaw that has occurred in primates → allows skill to balance during bipedalism
80
Q

Canines

A
  • Canines are large and sharply pointed, projecting beyond level of other teeth
    • Large canines have required modifications to adjacent teeth for mouth to close
    • Most primates with large canines have a diastema (gap) b/w upper 2nd incisor and upper canine → accommodate the large lower canine
    • Surface of molars have evolved → pattern useful in identifying teeth of fossil apes and humans
      • Evolved due to predominantly fruit diet of apes (five cusps in molars)
81
Q

distinctive human dentition

A
  • Canine teeth don’t project beyond level of other teeth and interlock
  • More even in size
  • Small canine teeth and incisors take up less room in jaw
  • Shape of tooth row or dental arcade has evolved into a different shape, instead of U shape of apes → parabolic in shape
82
Q

timelines of human evolution

A
  1. australopithecus afarensis
  2. australopithecus africanus
  3. paranthropus robustus
  4. homo habilis
  5. homo erectus
  6. homo neanderthalensis
  7. homo sapiens
83
Q

how old is australopithecus afarensis

A

3.9 - 2.5 mya

84
Q

brain size for australopithecus afarensis

A

375 - 500 cc

85
Q

height: a. afarensis

A

1 - 1.5m

86
Q

early discovery site: australopithecus afarensis

A

east africa, ethiopia

87
Q

what two things are assigned to australopithecus afarensis

A

Lucy, The First Family, and the Laetoli footprints

88
Q

diet: A. afarensis

A

herbivores (seeds, grains, fruit and roots)

89
Q

skull: A. afarensis

A
  • low forehead
  • prominent brow ridge
  • sagittal crest present in males
90
Q

teeth and jaw: A. afarensis

A
  • no chin
  • prognathic jaw
  • diastema
  • small canine teeth
91
Q

Limbs: A. afarensis

A
  • non-opposable big toe
  • long arms, shorter than legs
  • long curved fingers and toes
92
Q

pelvis: A. afarensis

A
  • short and wide
  • features of bipedalism
93
Q

how old is australopithecus africanus

A

3.2 - 2 mya

94
Q

brain size A. africanus

A

400-500cc

95
Q

height: a. africanus

A

1 - 1.3m

96
Q

early discovery site: A. africanus

A

South Africa

97
Q

diet: A. africanus

A

omnivores

98
Q

skull: A. africanus

A
  • slightly arched forehead
  • shorter face
  • smaller brow ridge
99
Q

teeth and jaw: A. africanus

A
  • prognathic jaw
  • shorter and smaller incisors and canines than a. afarensis
  • parabolic tooth row
  • no diastema
100
Q

limbs: A. africanus

A
  • non-opposable big toe
  • long arms, shorter than legs
  • some curvature of fingers and toes
101
Q

pelvis: A. africanus

A
  • short and wide
  • features of bipedalism
102
Q

how old is paranthropus robustus

A

2.5 - 1.5 mya

103
Q

brain size: paranthropus robustus

A

~ 530 cc

104
Q

height: paranthropus robustus

A

1.5 - 1.7 m

105
Q

early discovery site: paranthropus robustus

A

South Africa

106
Q

diet: paranthropus robustus

A

herbivores (berries, nuts, fruits, roots)

107
Q

build: paranthropus robustus

A

heavy build

108
Q

skull: paranthropus robustus

A
  • long, broad, flat face
  • sagittal crest
109
Q

teeth and jaw: paranthropus robustus

A
  • thick jaws (wide cheekbones)
  • small incisors and canines
  • large molar like premolars; large molars
110
Q

limbs: paranthropus robustus

A
  • long arms
  • moderate sexual dimorphism
111
Q

how old is homo habilis

A

2.4 - 1.5 mya

112
Q

brain size: H. habilis

A

500 - 650 cc

113
Q

height: H. habilis

A

1.2 to 1.5 m

114
Q

early discovery sites: H. habilis

A

Eastern and Southern Africa

115
Q

diet and food resources: H. habilis

A

omnivores -> scavengers, hunters/gatherers of catfish, small animals and plants
- diet largely carnivorous, small teeth with narrow back teeth

116
Q

skull: H. habilis

A
  • rounder skull
  • central foramen magnum
  • bulge in broca’s area -> speech production
  • smaller face than australo
  • no sagittal crest
  • flat nose
117
Q

teeth and jaw: H. habilis

A
  • evident prognathism
  • modern curve (parabolic)
  • smaller jaw than australo
  • smaller, narrow molars
  • reduced snout
118
Q

limbs: H. habilis

A
  • long arms
  • human like feet and hands
  • fully bipedal
119
Q

how old is homo erectus

A

1.8 mya - 200,000

120
Q

height: H.erectus

A

1.5m to 1.8m

121
Q

brain size: H.erectus

A

850 - 1000 cc

122
Q

early discovery site: H.erectus

A

Africa, Asia, Indonesia, possibly Europe

123
Q

diet and food resources: H.erectus

A

omnivorous -> large groups hunting, largely carnivirous thus massive molars
- Systematic hunting of large game had become a major part of hominid life for the first time. (hunting = major source of food)

124
Q

skull: H.erectus

A
  • shelving forehead
  • thick brow ridge
  • swelling in the brain (broca’s and wernicke’s area for speech production and recognition)
  • bun like swelling (not super prominent)
125
Q

teeth and jaw: H.erectus

A
  • no chin
  • projecting jaw
126
Q

physique: H.erectus

A

robust but “human” skeleton

127
Q

how old is h. neanderthalensis

A

160,000 to 32,000 years

128
Q

brain size: H. neanderthalensis

A

1400-1600 cc

129
Q

height: H. neanderthalensis

A

1.5 - 1.7m

130
Q

early discovery sites: H. neanderthalensis

A

europe and western asia (middle east)

131
Q

diet and food resources: H. neanderthalensis

A

carnivores
These people were hunters.
- Plant food would have been seasonal and unavailable during the cold winter of the glacial period (Europe)
- Possess large molar teeth that are well worn.

132
Q

skull: H. neanderthalensis

A
  • heavy, double-arched brow ridges
  • long low skull/long nasal opening
  • sloping forehead
  • prominent bun like swelling in occipital lobe
133
Q

teeth and jaw: H. neanderthalensis

A
  • smaller teeth than H erectus
  • flared zygomatic arches
  • weak chin
  • larger teeth than h sapiens
  • retromolar gap
134
Q

body type: H. neanderthalensis

A
  • shorter, more robust and muscular than modern humans (adapted for cold conditions)
  • wider shoulders
135
Q

limbs: H. neanderthalensis

A
  • thick limbs with large joints
  • shorter fingers and toes
136
Q

pelvis: H. neanderthalensis

A
  • wider pelvis
137
Q

how old is homo sapiens

A

300,000 - present

138
Q

brain size: H. sapiens

A

1350-1400cc

139
Q

height: H. sapiens

A

1.65-1.85 m

140
Q

early discovery sites: H. sapiens

A

africa and western asia -> WORLDWIDE

141
Q

diet and food resources: H. sapiens

A

carnivores
- Exploited numerous food resources as a hunter-gatherer.
- Later a farmer with domesticated animals and cultivated crops.
- Teeth became smaller as food preparation improved.

142
Q

skull: H. sapiens

A
  • no brow ridge, just slight swelling of glabella
  • vertical face
  • high, vertical forehead
  • occipital lobe is rounded and low
143
Q

teeth and jaw: H. sapiens

A
  • reduced teeth size
  • sizable jaw with projecting chin
  • reduced size of jaw and associated muscles
144
Q

body type: H. sapiens

A
  • short, slender trunks with long limbs
145
Q

limbs: H. sapiens

A
  • long legs compared with arms
  • straight fingers and toes
146
Q

which hominin was referred to as handy man

A

homo habilis

147
Q

selection pressures for H. habilis

A
  • Increases in brain size selected for
  • Reduction in sexual dimorphism suggests that increased cooperation is required perhaps due to the adoption of hunting which requires numerous individuals working as a team
148
Q

culture: homo habilis

A
  • Tools made from materials some distance away which suggests that they ‘planned’ the manufacturing of tools in advance.
  • Sharing of food b/w hunters and gatherers → development of communities → development of language
149
Q

tool culture and use: homo habilis

A

OLDAWON
- Pebble tools fashioned from lava cobble.
- Other perishable tools also probably used.
- Choppers and scrapers,
associated with butchering animal bones
- Grinding tough plant
materials
- Digging up edible roots and plants

150
Q

tool manufacture: homo habilis

A

tools were crudely, fashioned with few hammer blows (simple)
- Stone/pebbles/rocks with one or two pieces chipped off by striking/flaking rocks together/striking one stone with another

151
Q

selection pressures: homo erectus

A
  • A marked increase in brain size and complexity suggests that there were strong pressures for increased intelligence.
  • Development of tool technology gives competitive advantage over other predators.
  • Selection for improved bipedalism (occupy a range of geographical areas
152
Q

culture: homo erectus

A
  • More advanced tool making required an ability to plan the shape of the tool before it was made.
  • Tool making had a specific purpose
  • Some evidence of scalping which suggests that some form of ritualism existed.
  • Evidence of modifying environment to suit needs
    • Use of fire, building and
      modifying
      shelters, using range of tools
  • Cultural changes
    • Greater emphasis on cooperation (caring for young)
    • Complex lang. dev
153
Q

tool culture and use: homo erectus

A

ACHEULIAN
- Stone tools manufactured with more precision eg.
Hand axes (variety of sizes but using a similar shape for different tasks)
- Characteristic biface shape ‘tear drop’.
- Tools tend to be large and unrefined.
- Development of tools linked to increased communication due to social learning

154
Q

tool manufacture: homo erectus

A
  • Shaping of whole stone to a particular design
  • Bifaced - chipping from both sides
  • Careful repetitive flaking
  • Pressure flaking
155
Q

selection pressures: homo neanderthalensis

A
  • Well adapted to the cold glacial climate prevailing - with stout squat body form.
  • Food supply was possibly tenuous at times.
  • Having to cope with the cold by developing use of clothing, fire and shelters.
  • Finally unable to cope with selection pressure of modern humans
    (H.sapiens) and became extinct.
    • Out competed directly (combat) or indirectly (through hunting and gathering same resources)
156
Q

culture: homo neanderthalensis

A
  • Individuals were buried on their sides with knees up around their chest, covered with acre or flowers, surrounded by skulls or horns → suggests the beginnings of religious ritual/ceremonies
  • Cave bear cult involved some spiritual
    appreciation of the cave bear.
  • Used fire for warmth and cooking.
  • Probably made clothing and blankets from animal skins
  • Highly developed social system of sharing food and other resources
157
Q

tool culture and use: homo neanderthalensis

A

MOUSTERIAN
- Use of caves as shelters by some groups, others constructed shelters of wood, supported by mammoth tusks, covered with skins.
- Tools of include fine points, sharp knives and scrapers.
- Flake tools → ppl living in colder climates to make clothes
- Scraping tools → preparing animal hides
- Axes with wooden handles
- Some stone points were hafted onto spears.

158
Q

tool manufacture: homo neanderthalensis

A
  • Edges of flakes shaped and reworked (sharpened)
    after use
  • Pressure flaking
  • Flint became a preferred material to produce stone tools because of the very predictable way in which it would chip when struck with another hard object (much finer workmanship was possible).
  • The Levallois tool making method involved preparing a core and striking off a large oval flake which was then retouched on one surface only.
159
Q

selection pressures: homo sapiens

A
  • Natural selection favoured increased
    intelligence as a means to overcome challenges in the environment (can live anywhere!)
  • A strategy to minimise the effect of selection pressures by developing appropriate technology and behaviour patterns
160
Q

culture: homo sapiens

A
  • Very fine tool technology requiring lots of work
  • First appearance of cave paintings, bone carvings and clay statues.
  • Began hunting selected animals eg. mammoth.
  • Animals provided source of meat, clothing, tools, material for shelters
  • Musical instruments, finely crafter stone and bone tools, ivory jewellery, paintings = cultural advancements of Cro-Magnon man (artefacts)
  • Greater linguistic competence → colonising range of geographical areas → move from nomadic lifestyle to village way of life
    (Neolithic or Agricultural revolution)
    Planting of crops
    Farming and domestication of animals
  • Civilisations grew out of agriculture
161
Q

tool culture and use: homo sapiens

A
  • Development of new stone technology characterised by specialised and standardised stone blade tools which replaced the Mousterian technology.
  • Long narrow blades were the basis of most tools, adapted for special functions by careful retouching of the edges.
  • Use of bone and antler as a tool making material to produce needles, harpoons etc.
    AURIGNACIAN - Cro-magnon
    Formed from prepared cores rather than crude flakes
    Made from bone
    SOLUTREAN
    Blades formed in the shape of laurel or willow-leaves
    MAGDALENIAN
    Use of bone and antlers over the use of flint and stone
162
Q

tool manufacture

A
  • Production and use of stone
  • Finer detail and smaller tools
163
Q

trends in tool culture and its indications about hominid lifestyle

A
  1. greater variety of materials used/use of stone only to bone, anther, ivory, wood: hominids used resources more effectively/used more variety of resources/understood how to use their environment better
  2. greater number of blows/increased workmanship/time into tool production/greater complexity: hominids completed more complex jobs/did finer work/had time to create
  3. tools became more specialised/tools used to make tools/hafted tools: hominids had more specialised roles within communities
164
Q

aurignacian

A

Blade-like tools
Made by removing long, flat rectangles from core stone
Effective in cutting useful as a cutting tool

165
Q

solutrean

A

Willow-leaf/leaf shaped tools
Made by pressure flaking
No apparent practical purpose/purely ornamental

166
Q

magdalenian

A

(Mostly) tools of bone and antler
Made from a burin/from a chisel-like cutter tool
Needles/spear points/spear throwers/etc.

Human Biology Y12 (12 decks)

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