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Grade 12 Biology > Homeostasis > Flashcards

Homeostasis Flashcards

1
Q

What is the nervous system responsible for?

A

receiving information about the external and internal environment, processing the information and generating a response

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2
Q

What are the 3 parts of the nervous system?

A

the brain, spinal cord and nerves

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3
Q

What are the 3 principle functions of the nervous sysetm?

A

sensory input, integration and motor output

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4
Q

What is sensory input?

A

receiving information about changes in the environment from sensory neurons

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5
Q

What is integration?

A

interpreting the information in the brain or spinal cord by interneurons

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6
Q

What is motor output?

A

coordinating a response from muscles or glands by motor neurons

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7
Q

What are the 2 major divisions of the nervous system?

A

The central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system

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8
Q

What does the CNS consist of?

A

the brain and spinal cord

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9
Q

What does the CNS do?

A

takes in information from sensory receptors, processes it, coordinates an appropriate response by effectors

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10
Q

What does the CNS contain?

A

mainly interneurons

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11
Q

What is the PNS made of?

A

sensory organs, effectors and nerves

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12
Q

What does the PNS do?

A

relays signals to the CNS from sensory receptors, motor nerves relay signals from the CNS to effectors

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13
Q

What does the PNS consist of?

A

sensory and motor neurons

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14
Q

What are the 2 types of nervous system cells?

A

neurons and glial cells

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15
Q

What do neurons do and how many are there?

A

receive and transmit nerve impulses throughout the nervous system, 3 kinds

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16
Q

What do glial cells do and how many types are there?

A

they provide support for neurons and there are 5 main types

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17
Q

What is a neuron?

A

the structural and functional unit of the nervous system

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18
Q

How many types of structural types of neurons are there and what are they?

A

3, multipolar neurons, bipolar neurons and pseudounipolar neurons

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19
Q

What are multipolar neurons?

A

a neuron with many dendrites, one axon and a cell body near the dendrites

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20
Q

What are bipolar neurons?

A

a neuron with one dendrite, one axon and a cell body in the middle

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21
Q

What is a pseudounipolar neuron?

A

a neuron with a cell body with 1 extension split into 2 axons with dendrites at the ends

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22
Q

What are the functional neurons and how many are there?

A

3, sensory neurons, interneurons and motor neurons

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23
Q

What do sensory neurons do?

A

they transmit signals from sensory receptors to the CNS

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24
Q

What do interneurons do?

A

they transmit signals between sensory and motor neurons

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25
Q

What do motor neurons do?

A

they transmit signals from the CNS to muscles and glands

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26
Q

What do interneurons allow?

A

they allow the nervous system to integrate information and coordinate a response

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27
Q

What is a reflex?

A

a rapid, automatic response that bypasses the brain

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28
Q

What is a nerve?

A

a cable-like bundle of multiple axons wrapped in layers of connective tissue and fat

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29
Q

How many types of nerves are there and what are they?

A

3 types, sensory nerves, motor nerves and mixed nerves

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30
Q

What do sensory nerves do?

A

they transmit nerve impulses from sense organs to the CNS

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31
Q

What do motor nerves do?

A

they transmit nerve impulses from the CNS to muscles or glands

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32
Q

What do mixed nerves do?

A

they transmit nerve impulses in both directions

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33
Q

What are Schwann cells and what do they do?

A

they wrap around the PNS neurons to form sheaths made of myelin and they speed up transmission

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34
Q

How does a nerve impulse work?

A

begins at the cell body, travels along the axon, and passes to another neuron or effector at the axon terminal

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35
Q

What is an action potential?

A

an electrochemical event that is created by a sudden change in the concentration of ions on opposite sides of a neurons cell membrane

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36
Q

What are the steps of the action potential?

A

resting potential, depolarization, repolarization, hyperpolarization

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37
Q

What is happening to the neuron during resting potential?

A

the neuron is not firing, action potential is not occurring, a sodium-potassium pump actively pumps 3Na+ ions out of the cell and 2K+ ions in the cell to keep the cell balanced

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38
Q

What is the charges on either side of the cell during resting potential?

A

positively charged outside and negatively charged inside

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39
Q

What is the voltage level during resting potential?

A

-70mV

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40
Q

What happens at the threshold?

A

When a stimulus is triggered, Na+ channels open allowing the ions to rush into the cell, causing a small depolarization

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41
Q

What does the voltage rise to during the threshold?

A

-55mV

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42
Q

What happens during depolarization?

A

Once the -55mV is hit, more Na+ gated channels open allowing more ions to rush into the cell causing an even more depolarization

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43
Q

What is the voltage during depolarization?

A

+35mV

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44
Q

What happens during repolarization?

A

when the voltage hits +35mV, the cell begins to repolarize and Na+ gated channels close and K+ gated channels open and potassium ions rapidly diffuse out of the cell which decreases the voltage

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45
Q

What is the voltage during repolarization?

A

-70mV

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46
Q

What happens during hyperpolarization?

A

The K+ gated channels stay open for slightly longer than needed to bring the membrane back to the resting potential

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47
Q

What is the voltage during hyperpolarization?

A

-75mV

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48
Q

What happens after hyperpolarization?

A

the sodium potassium pumps regulate the voltage back to -70mV and the neuron goes back to being in the resting potential phase

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49
Q

What is the refractory period?

A

the time after an action potential where a neuron cannot fire again

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50
Q

What is the absolute refractory period?

A

a neuron cannot have another action potential due to inactive Na+ channels

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51
Q

What is a relative refractory period?

A

a neuron can have a action potential with larger stimulus due to K+ channels still being open

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52
Q

What is the all or none rule?

A

action potentials occur fully or not at all action potentials don’t change sizes

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53
Q

What are synaptic bulbs?

A

knob like tips are the end of axon terminals on the neuron

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54
Q

What is the synapse?

A

the junction between the synaptic bulb of one neuron and another neuron or an effector

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55
Q

What is the synaptic cleft?

A

a tiny gap where a nerve signal is transmitted

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56
Q

What are chemical messengers?

A

neurotransmitters

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57
Q

What is the spinal cord?

A

a cord of nerve tissue that passes down from the brain through a bony column formed by the vertebrae

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58
Q

What is the spinal cord composed of?

A

interneurons and motor neurons

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59
Q

What are the 2 functions of the spinal cord?

A

connect the PNS to the CNS and process some forms of sensory information and sends out responses

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60
Q

What are meninges?

A

3 layers that surround the brain and spinal cord

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61
Q

What does meninges do?

A

cushion, protect and nourish the nerve tissue

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62
Q

What are the 3 layers of meninges?

A

the dura mater, the arachnoid mater and the pia mater

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63
Q

What is the dura mater?

A

the outermost layer, made of tough fibrous connective tissue

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64
Q

what is the arachnoid mater?

A

the middle layer, net-like with vessels that reabsorb cerebrospinal fluid

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65
Q

What is the pia mater?

A

the innermost layer, very thin layer with numerous blood vessels

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66
Q

What is the cerebrospinal fluid and where is it found?

A

a clear watery fluid that is found in the central canal of the spinal cord and within the cavities of the brain

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67
Q

Where is the CSF made?

A

the choroid plexus

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68
Q

What is the CSF functions?

A

cushions and protects the brain and spinal cord from injury, supplies nutrients to nervous system issues and removes waste products from nervous system metabolism

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69
Q

What is the outer material of the spinal cord and what is it made of?

A

the white mater, it is composed of sensory nerves and motor nerves that have myelin sheaths

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70
Q

What is the inner material of the spinal cord and what is it composed of?

A

the grey mater, it is composed of interneurons that have no myelin sheaths

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71
Q

Where do nerve roots extend from?

A

the posterior and anterior horns of the spinal cord

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72
Q

Where do dorsal roots come from and what do they contain?

A

they are posterior, they are closest to the back of the body, they contain sensory neurons whose cell bodies are clumped in bulb-like regions

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73
Q

Where do the ventral roots come from and what do they contain?

A

They are anterior, they are closest to the front of the body, they contain motor neurons whose cell bodies are found in the grey matter if the spinal cord

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74
Q

What is the brain?

A

the processing center of the nervous system

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75
Q

What is the brain the site of?

A

consciousness, sensation, coordination and memory

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76
Q

What are the 3 regions of the brain?

A

the cerebrum, the cerebellum and the brain stem

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77
Q

What is the largest part of the brain?

A

the cerebrum

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78
Q

What does the cerebrum control?

A

complex mental functions like thought, reasoning, memory, and determines a persons intelligence and personality

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79
Q

What does the cerebrum contain?

A

interneurons for interpreting sensory information from sense organs initiating voluntary responses to stimuli through effectors

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80
Q

What are the 3 main parts of the cerebrum?

A

the cerebral cortex, the basal ganglia and the medullary body

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81
Q

What is the cerebral cortex?

A

the outer surface of the cerebrum which contains folds and deep grooves

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82
Q

How is the cerebral cortex divided?

A

Into the left and right hemispheres

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83
Q

What is the corpus callosum?

A

connect the left and right hemispheres with a bridge of nerve fibers

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84
Q

What are the 4 lobes of the brain?

A

the frontal lobe, the parietal lobe, the temporal lobe and the occipital lobe

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85
Q

What is the function of the frontal lobe?

A

deliberate movements, conscious thoughts, emotions

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86
Q

What is the function of the parietal lobe?

A

sensory processing, body orientation, attention

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87
Q

What is the function of the temporal lobe?

A

hearing, speech, visual and auditory memory

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88
Q

What is the function of the occipital lobe?

A

vision and object recognition

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89
Q

What are the specialized areas of the cerebrum?

A

the motor cortex, the somatosensory cortex, brocas area and wrenickes area

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90
Q

What is the function of the motor cortex?

A

controls and execution of voluntary movements

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91
Q

What is the function of the somatosensory cortex?

A

reception and interpretation of sense of touch

92
Q

What is the function of the brocas area?

A

generating and articulating oral speech and language

93
Q

What is the function of wrenickes area?

A

understanding written and spoken speech and language

94
Q

What is the cerebellum?

A

a large mass of grey and white matter located posterior to the brain stem

95
Q

What is the function of the cerebellum?

A

the coordination center for all body movements

96
Q

What is the brain stem?

A

the lower section of the brain and connects the cerebrum to the spinal cord

97
Q

What is the function of the brain stem?

A

the relay center between the CNS and PNS and acts as a control center for many involuntary functions

98
Q

What are the 3 parts of the brain stem?

A

the midbrain, pons and the medulla oblongata

99
Q

What is the medulla oblongata?

A

the bottom portion of the brain stem

100
Q

What does the medulla oblongata do?

A

conducts signals between the spinal cord and cerebrum and controls automatic functions like breathing, heart rate and blood pressure

101
Q

What is the pons?

A

the middle bulge of the brain stem

102
Q

What is the function of the pons?

A

conducts signals between the medulla, cerebellum and the cerebrum

103
Q

What is the midbrain?

A

the top portion of the brain stem

104
Q

What does the midbrain do?

A

conducts signals between the spinal cord and the cerebrum, controls automatic functions such as vision, hearing, motor control, alertness and temperature

105
Q

What does the endocrine system consist of and what do they do?

A

glands and cells that secretes hormones into the bloodstream

106
Q

What are endocrine glands?

A

glands that produce messengers (hormones) that are released into the blood and kept inside the body

107
Q

What are the 2 types of hormones?

A

Steroid and non-steroid hormones

108
Q

What is the actions of steroid hormones?

A

Fat soluble, passes easily through the cell membrane, hormones bind to receptors or proteins to form a hormone-receptor complex that can turn a gene off and on

109
Q

What is the actions of the nonsteroid hormones?

A

Water soluble, binds with receptors on the cell membrane to form an hormone-receptor complex outside of the cell to trigger a second messenger molecule that alters cell metabolism and activity

110
Q

What is the location of the hypothalamus?

A

below the thalamus, part of the nervous system

111
Q

what is the function of the hypothalamus?

A

links the nervous system to the endocrine system by the pituitary and produces releasing hormones that stimulate the release of pituitary hormones into the blood

112
Q

What hormones do the hypothalamus produce?

A

releasing hormones, anti-diuretic hormone and oxytocin

113
Q

What is the effects of the releasing hormone?

A

increases the release of pituitary hormones

114
Q

what is the effects of the anit-diuretic hormone?

A

increased blood volume and pressure

115
Q

What is the effects of oxytocin?

A

increases contractions of the uterus and milk released

116
Q

What is the location of the anterior pituitary?

A

inside a bony structure at the base of the brain

117
Q

What is the function of the anterior pituitary?

A

responding to signals from the hypothalamus, releases hormones to signal other glands

118
Q

What are the hormones produced by the anterior pituitary?

A

growth hormone, melanocyte-stimulating hormone, adrenocorticotrophic hormone, follicle stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone and prolactin

119
Q

What is the effects of the growth hormone?

A

increases growth of organs and increase blood glucose

120
Q

What is the effects of the melanocyte-stimulating hormone?

A

increases synthesis of melanin in the skin

121
Q

What is the effects of the adrenocorticotrophic hormone?

A

increases hormones by the adrenals

122
Q

What is the effects of the follicle stimulating hormone?

A

sperm and follicle development and estrogen

123
Q

What is the effects of the luteinizing hormone?

A

increases testosterone, ovulation and estrogen

124
Q

What is the effects of prolactin?

A

increases breast development and milk production

125
Q

What is the location of the posterior pituitary?

A

inside a bony structure at the base of the brain

126
Q

What is the function of the posterior pituitary?

A

responding to signals from the hypothalamus, releases hormones to signal other glands

127
Q

What hormones are stored in the posterior pituitary?

A

antidiuretic hormone, oxytocin

128
Q

What is the location of the thyroid?

A

in the next near the larynx

129
Q

What is the structure of the thyroid?

A

2 wing like lobes that are connected by a band of tissues with functional units called follicles

130
Q

What are the hormones produced by the thyroid?

A

thyroxine, triiodothyronine and calcitonin

131
Q

What is the effects of the thyroxine and triiodothyronine?

A

increasing cellular and body metabolism

132
Q

What is the effects of calcitonin?

A

decreasing blood calcium and increasing bone calcium

133
Q

What is the location of the parathyroid?

A

behind the thyroid

134
Q

What is the structure of the parathyroid?

A

4 tiny lumps of gland tissue, each the size of a pea

135
Q

What is the function of the parathyroid?

A

Does numerous antagonistic things compared to the thyroid?

136
Q

What is the hormone produced by the parathyroid?

A

the parathyroid hormone

137
Q

What is the effects of the parathyroid hormone?

A

increased blood calcium and increased calcium release from the bones

138
Q

What is the location of the pancreas?

A

in a fold beneath the stomach

139
Q

What is the functions of the pancreas?

A

produces enzymes for digestion and endocrine hormones

140
Q

What are the hormones produced by the pancreas?

A

insulin and glucagon

141
Q

What is the effects of insulin?

A

decreasing blood glucose levels and increasing glucose absorption by cells

142
Q

What is the effects of glucagon?

A

increasing blood glucose levels and increasing formation of glucose

143
Q

What is the location of the adrenals?

A

one on top of each kidney

144
Q

What is the structure of the adrenals?

A

inner tissue called the medulla, outer tissue called the cortex

145
Q

What is the functions of the adrenals?

A

the medulla secretes amine hormones and the cortex secretes steroid hormones

146
Q

What are the hormones produced by the adrenals?

A

epinephrine, aldosterone, cortisol and androgens

147
Q

What is the effects of the epinephrine?

A

the fight or flight mechanism

148
Q

What is the effects of aldosterone?

A

regulates blood electrolytes

149
Q

What is the effects of cortisol?

A

increasing blood glucose levels and has anti-inflammatory effects

150
Q

What is the effects of the androgens?

A

influences sex characteristics

151
Q

What is the location of the ovaries?

A

held on either side of the uterus

152
Q

What is the structure of the ovaries?

A

a pair of oval shaped structures

153
Q

What is the function of the ovaries?

A

responsible for producing egg cells that grow inside of a follicle

154
Q

What hormones are produced by the ovaries?

A

estrogen and progesterone

155
Q

What is the effects of estrogen?

A

increasing development and maturation of female sexual characteristics

156
Q

What is the effects of progesterone?

A

increasing bodily conditions needed for maintained pregnancy

157
Q

What is the location of the testes?

A

held outside the body in the scrotum

158
Q

What is the structure of the testes?

A

a pair oval shaped structures

159
Q

What is the function of the testes?

A

Responsible for producing sperm cells in response to the pituitary, produce male sex hormones

160
Q

What hormone does the testes produce?

A

testosterone

161
Q

What is the effects of testosterone?

A

increasing development and maturation of male sexual characteristics

162
Q

What is the location of the thymus?

A

behind the sternum in the upper thorax

163
Q

What is the structure of the thymus?

A

2 wing like lobes

164
Q

What is the function of the thymus?

A

produce and release hormones into the blood, involved in immune responses

165
Q

What hormone does the thymus produce?

A

thymosins

166
Q

What is the location of the pineal?

A

found in the midbrain and attached to the thalamus

167
Q

What is the effect of thymosins?

A

a family of hormones that promotes the development of immune cells called T-lymphocytes

168
Q

What is the structure of the pineal?

A

a pea sized gland that is pine cone shaped

169
Q

What is the function of the pineal?

A

produces melatonin from the amino acid tryptophan and influences pituitary hormones

170
Q

What is the hormone produced by the pineal?

A

melatonin

171
Q

What is the effects of melatonin?

A

influences the day-night cycle and regulates the activity of other hormones

172
Q

What is the function of the urinary system?

A

helps maintain homeostasis, regulates the composition and concentration of substances in body fluids

173
Q

What are the 4 major functions of the urinary system?

A

filtration, excretion, hormones and homeostasis

174
Q

What is filtration?

A

separates waste products from blood to form a filtrate

175
Q

What is excretion?

A

stores and removes urine from the body

176
Q

What is hormones in the urinary system?

A

the production of 2 essential hormones

177
Q

What is homeostasis in the urinary system?

A

control of fluid levels, blood pH and pressure

178
Q

What is included in the excretory system?

A

the lungs and skin

179
Q

What are the kidneys and where are they found?

A

2 bean shaped organs roughly the size of a fist and found under the ribcage on either side of the spinal cord

180
Q

What are the 2 regions of the kidney?

A

the outer cortex and the inner medulla

181
Q

What is the medulla divided into?

A

triangular sections called renal pyramids

182
Q

What are the renal pyramids separated by?

A

inward extensions of the cortex called renal columns

183
Q

What is found in the cortex?

A

Nephrons

184
Q

What is nephron and where is it located?

A

the basic functional filtration unit of the kidney and is located where blood is filtered and urine is produced

185
Q

What are the main jobs of the nephron?

A

filter the blood, removes wastes, removes excess substances, returns useful substances and eliminates wastes in the urine

186
Q

Where does the renal pyramid drain into?

A

The mink calyx (where urine is first collected)

187
Q

Where do several minor calyxes drain into?

A

major calyx

188
Q

Where does the major calyces drain into?

A

the renal pelvis

189
Q

Where does unfiltered blood enter the kidney?

A

the renal artery

190
Q

Where does the blood flow around in the renal pyramids?

A

interlobular arteries and arcuate arteries

191
Q

What do the interlobular and arcuate arteries subdivide into?

A

smaller afferent aterioles

192
Q

Where do the afferent arterioles enter the nephrons?

A

the glomerular capillaries

193
Q

What are the 4 steps for the formation of urine?

A

filtration, reabsorption, secretion and excretion

194
Q

What is reabsorption?

A

the process of the blood reclaiming useful substances from the filtrate

195
Q

What is secretion?

A

the process of substances actively pushed out of the blood and into the filtrate?

196
Q

Where does urine go when it leaves the kidneys?

A

it enters a pair of slender tubes called ureters that connects to the bladder

197
Q

What is the bladder and what does it do?

A

an elastic, muscular sac that sits on the pelvic floor and stores urine

198
Q

What do the kidneys nephrons produce?

A

urine

199
Q

What is urine?

A

a sterile, liquid byproduct of metabolism in humans

200
Q

How much urine is produced per day?

A

1.5 liters

201
Q

What is urine made of?

A

95% water and 5% solids like urea, ions and salts

202
Q

What is urinalysis?

A

the study of the composition of urine

203
Q

What are urine tests used for?

A

to check overall health, diagnose new conditions and monitor existing ones

204
Q

What do the kidneys help maintain and how?

A

the body’s blood pressure and blood volume by changing the volume and concentration of urine that they produce

205
Q

What happens when blood pressure and volume is too high?

A

kidneys produce larger volumes or urine to cause it to decrease

206
Q

What happens when the blood volume and pressure is too low?

A

kidneys produce smaller volumes of urine to cause it to increase

207
Q

What are the 3 main mechanisms that help regulate urine production?

A

Renal autoregulation, antidiuretic hormone and renin-angiotensin-aldosterone

208
Q

How do the kidneys respond to changes in blood pressure?

A

by dilating or constricting the afferent and efferent arterioles at the glomerulus, ensuring that the rate of flow does not change

209
Q

What is the ability for the kidneys to respond to changes in blood pressure?

A

renal autoregulation

210
Q

What does renal autoregulation operate at?

A

the normal blood pressure range of 80-180 mmHg

211
Q

What is the regulation of blood osmolarity?

A

the concentration of solutes dissolved in the bloodstream

212
Q

What happens when blood osmolarity is high?

A

blood volume tends to be low

213
Q

What happens when blood osmolarity is low?

A

blood volume tends to be high

214
Q

Where is blood osmolarity monitored?

A

the hypothalamus

215
Q

What happens when osmolarity is high?

A

the hypothalamus stimulates the release of ADH by an endocrine gland called the pituitary, ADH travels through the blood and reaches the kidney and acts on both the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct

216
Q

What does ADH cause in the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct?

A

to be more permeable to water

217
Q

How does ADH cause in the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct?

A

stimulates the addition of extra protein channels in their membraned called aquaporins which causes more water to be reabsorbed into the blood

218
Q

What does greater water reabsorption mean?

A

higher blood volume and lower blood osmolarity

219
Q

What specialized cells monitor blood pressure by the afferent and efferent arterioles?

A

juxtaglomerular complex

220
Q

What does JGC cells do when blood pressure is detected?

A

they release the enzyme renin into the blood

221
Q

What does renin do?

A

travels to the liver where it catalyzes the production of a hormone called angiotensin 1

222
Q

Where is angiotensin 1 converted into angiotensin 2?

A

the lungs

223
Q

What does angiotensin 2 do?

A

it travels to the adrenals glands which triggers the release of aldosterone

224
Q

What does aldosterone stimulate and then cause?

A

the reabsorption of Na+ ions in the distal convoluted tubule which causes water to reenter the bloodstream by osmosis

225
Q

What is the result of water reentering the bloodstream?

A

blood volume and blood pressure increases

Grade 12 Biology (3 decks)

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