Hock Studies 25-28 Flashcards
25 Rotter, J. B. (1966). Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement. Psychological Monographs, 80, 1-28.
Background/Theory/Hypothesis:
Rotter is one of the most influential behaviorists in psychology. He designed a theory to explain how some people interpret the consequences of their behavior as controlled by fate/higher power, while some believe that their fate is determined by their own actions. He called this phenomenon having an “internal versus external locus of control.” He predicted that a test could be developed to reliably test the extent to which someone relies on an internal or external locus of control. He hypothesized that people will display stable individual differences in interpretation of the causes of reinforcement in situations. He intended to demonstrate this by comparing the behavior of “internals” and “externals.”
Method:
Rotter developed the I-E scale, that ultimately included 23 items, plus 6 six filler items. Each item consisted of a pair of statements, such as “unhappy things in peoples lives are due to bad luck” and “peoples misfortunes are a result of mistakes they made” and participants had to chose the one that they believe to be most true. The next step was to compare individual’s scores on the scale to their interaction with events in their lives.
Results:
Rotter found significant results in many areas of life, including gambling (e = moderate odds; i = long shots, gamblers fallacies), persuasion (e = better as changing others attitudes; i = harder to have attitude changed), smoking (e = more likely to quiet after warning), achievement motivation, and conformity (think Asch).
Significance:
Cultural differences, socioeconomic differences, parenting style. Consistency of results indicates that locus of control is a defining characteristic of people, not nec. personality trait bc based on environmental factors.
Criticism:
Legacy:
- 1977 review found that I’s make take responsibility for their own health, and are more likely to engage in healthy habits.
- relationship between parenting style and LOC is supported by subsequent research. Parents of children who are I tend to be more affectionate, fair with discipline. Parents of E children tend to be more authoritarian.
- catastrophic implications of LOC, alabama (higher death toll) v. illinois tornadoes, ruled out all environmental factors (storm strength, infrastructure, time of day), turned to psychological variables, Alabama respondents = significantly greater E LOC, less confident in themselves as agents.
- LOC has been incorporated into thousands of studies
26 Bem, S. L. (1974). The measurement of psychological androgyny. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 42, 155-162.
Background/Theory/Hypothesis:
- Pre 1970’s, not only were notions of gender extremely binary, so were notions of masculinity and femininity. In the 70’s, this one-dimensional view began to shift to think of masculinity and femininity as existing on 2 parallel spectrums, as opposed to be opposite ends of one. Sandra Bem seized upon this revolutionary idea and began articulating a theory in contradiction to the prevailing notion that someone fits into one category or another in alignment with their assigned sex, but rather that a healthy, balanced person incorporates aspects of both masculinity and femininity. She coined the term “androgyny” and set out to develop a method for measuring gender expression with 2 scales –> the Bem Sex-Roles Inventory (BSRI).
Method:
- Item selection, over 200 traits, had 100 psych students rate most desireable for men or for women on a 7 point scale. Selected the top 20 of each, plus 10 positive neutral and 10 negative neutral. These 60 comprise the BSRI. People rate how well each item describes them, on a 7 point scale, and 3 scores are produced - masc (ambitious, independent, etc.), feminine (gentle, soft spoken, cheerful), and androgynous (moody, sincere, truthful, jealous). Scores closest to 0 represent androgyny, positive scores are more fem, negative scores are more masculine. Computed by subtracting M from F score.
Results:
- high level of internal consistency (cronbach’s alpha) and high test-retest reliability.
- high validity because masculinity and femininity were distinctly different traits (independent from each other) and were measuring what they said they were measuring.
- the term “androgynous” can apply to anyone, this is basically about expression/traits. About 35% of males in the study were A, 29% of females.
Significance:
- marked a shift in focusing on the behavioral and societal consequences of confining people to gender expectations and the benefits of allowing sex-roles to be more fluid. Bem believed that in a society with strict sex roles, an androgynous person would actually be more psychologically healthy.
Criticism/Legacy:
- some researchers have suggested that psychological advantages experienced by androgynous people has more to do with having masc traits, rather than a balance. Development of refinement of measurement by have 6 realms (positive and negative of each).
- hasn’t really stayed consistent over time.
- think about implications and impact
Legacy:
27 Friedman, M. & Rosenman, R. H. (1959). Association of specific overt behavior pattern with blood and cardiovascular findings. Journal of the American Medical Association, 169, 1286-1296.
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Method:
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Background/Theory/Hypothesis:
- office waiting room upholstery wearing in an unusual way
- both cardiologists, wondered if their patients (people w heart disease) were different
Method:
- developed a model of characteristics and observable/overt behavior. Pattern A = highly competitive, persistent desire for recognition and achievement, intense drive to achieve goals, mental and physical alertness. Pattern B = relative absence of drive, ambition, urgency, competition.
83 middle-aged men in each group
1. interviews on history of CHD, family CHD, heart trouble sleep/exercise habits, observation, and admittance.
2. food/drink diary, with codes
3. blood samples to measure cholesterol, clotting. CHD analysis.
Results:
- A = chronically harassed by ambition, commitments, drives.
- B = satisfied, no rush
- found to be similar across all characteristics except for parental history of CHD and cigs/day. However, clotting time between fully A and fully B groups was stat sig (6.8-7.2 mins).
Significance:
- genetic rather than behavioral?
- understanding the role of personality/psychology in the development and prevention of disease.
Criticism:
Legacy:
28 Triandis, H., Bontempo, R., Villareal, M. Asai, M., & Lucca, N. (1988). Individualism and collectivism: Cross-cultural perspectives on self-ingroup relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 323-338.
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Background/Theory/Hypothesis:
culture = fuzzy. must determine ways of determining dimensions of cultural variation. individual v collective –> a way to understand many underlying aspects of human behavior, interaction, personality.
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