Hock Studies 21-24 Flashcards
21 Masters, W. H., & Johnson, V. E. (1966). Human Sexual Response. Boston: Little, Brown.
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Background/Theory/Hypothesis:
Historical context of the 1960’s “Sexual Revolution,” subversion of Victorian beliefs.
To understand human sexuality, must actually behavior and response to stimulation, rather than rely on self-reports.
Objective = therapeutic. Must know what physical reactions develop and why.
Method:
Participants = first employed prostitutes (8 W, 3 M), for 2 years, but not a representative enough sample. Recruited via academic and medical communities, gathered 694 participants (312 W, 382 M).
Procedures = normal physiological measures (blood pressure, heart rate, respiration); observed intercourse in various positions and masturbation, either manually or with recording devices. Participant comfort and orientation period.
Results:
Observed ~10,000 complete sexual response cycles, 7,500 being female (3:1 ratio).
The Sexual Response Cycle:
- Excitement (vaginal lubrication, nipplies/clit erect, vagina increases and expands // penis erect, testes rise)
- Plateau (outer third of vagina swells, opening shrinks, clit retracts, lips engorge and darken, muscle tension and BP increase // Full erection attained, corona enlarges, pre ejaculate, muscle tension and BP increase)
- Orgasm (rhythmic pelvic contractions 0.8 second intervals, uterus contracts, increased muscle tension throughout, length recorded from 7.4 to 104.6 seconds // pelvic contractions 0.8 second intervals, ejaculation –> emission and explusion)
- Resolution (Clitoris, uterus, vagina, nipples, etc. return to unaroused state, clit remains highly sensitive for 5-10 mins // 50% erection loss within 1 min, gradual return to unaroused state, testes descend, scrotum relaxes
Dispelling of Myths about Sexual Anatomy:
- Phallic Fallacies (average penis size = 3” flaccid, 6” erect; flaccid size does not predict erect size; larger penises are not necessarily better because vaginas are highly elastic structures that can accommodate various sizes –> Vagina Fallacies)
Male/Female Differences:
- Refractory period for penises
- Multiple orgasms for vaginas (capable of maintaining orgasmic experience)
Significance:
- Multiple orgasms not widely known, dispelled myths and false perceptions about anatomy and sexuality
- Contributed to shifting societal/cultural attitudes about sexuality
Criticism:
- 4 stages = arbitrary (but they were aware of this)
- Little time discussing emotional/cognitive aspects, (but explicitly not a goal of the project)
- Not universally applicable? Recent research –> female ejaculation, female refractory period, male multiple orgasms
Legacy:
- Positively ground-breaking and floodgate-opening for understanding of human sexuality and continuing research in this area
- One of the most cited studies ever (over 6k on GS)
- Kaplan 3 stage model, 1974 (desire, vasocongestion, muscle contractions)
- Bancroft et al., 2003; tested use of drugs to treat female sexual distress, found that female sexual distress (ex. lubrication) tends to have more emotional and psychological origins
- Tiefer, 2001; asserts that women don’t like to separate desire and arousal, suggest women’s sexual difficulties require a classification system that includes political, cultural, and economic factors, partner issues, medical factors, and psychological factors
- Virtually all sex therapy rests on a M&J foundation
22 Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. V. (1971). Constants across cultures in the face and emotion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 17, 124-129.
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Recognition of specific facial features corresponding to basic emotions are universal. Members of isolated preliterate societies will identify the same emotion concepts as those in literate Western/Eastern cultures.
Method:
South Fore (New Guinea) subgroup, individuals selected had seen no movies, did not speak English, and had never lived in a Western settlement. 189 adults, 130 children, + 23 adults who had Western exposure.
Shown 3 photographs of different facial expressions (1 right, 2 wrong), read description of emotion-producing story, participant select picture that best matched the story.
40 photos of 24 different Western people, with 6 emotions (happy, sad, anger, surprise, disgust, fear), each judged by at least 70% of Western participants for consistency. Teams of one researcher and one local translator.
Results:
- No significant differences based on gender or age.
- All differences were statistically significance, except when trying to distinguish fear and surprise (possibly more culturally-based concepts, surprises are almost always fearful)
- No sig. diffs between Westernized and non-Westernized adults.
- Supported hypothesis that certain facial behaviors are universally associated with certain emotions
Significance:
- Contribution to nature/nurture debate, supports idea that emotion-recognition is innate/hardwired
- Addresses evolution, ability to recognize emotions = increased ability to survive
- Facial Feedback Theory, by Ekman. Expression on face feeds info to brain to assist in interpreting what you’re experiencing (1983).
Criticism: NA
Legacy:
- Hansen and Hansen, 1988; studied ability to pick out happy v. angry faces (angry = significantly faster).
- Desire, Boissy, & Veissier, 2002; study about the how environment affects the emotional state of farm animals.
- Sadr, Jarudi, & Sinha, 2003; found that absence of eyebrows leads to serious disruption in ability to accurately recognize emotions –> significantly greater misunderstanding during absence of eyebrows than of eyes.
23 Ross, P. (2003, August, 11). Mind readers. Scientific American. 289(3), 74-77.
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- About an important area of psychology that is currently developing.
- fMRI = functional MRI; reveals the thinking process in real time.
- Truth –> one part of the brain will light up. Lie –> two parts of the brain will light up.
Method:
Pick one of 3 envelopes, that all hold a 5 of clubs card and $20. Asked to memorize the card, return contents to envelope, put in pocket. Told if they can keep card “secret from computer” they can keep the money. Others were given a 2 of hearts and instructed not to lie about what they had. All participants were then placed in fMRI machine with yes/no button. Asked “do u have this card?”
Results:
During the
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24 Festinger, L. & Carlsmith, J. M. (1959). Cognitive consequences of forced compliance. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 58, 203-210
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Background/Theory/Hypothesis:
Several studies around this time were attempting to explain how and why peoples attitudes shift when they are required to do or say things that don’t align with their actual beliefs. Researchers were puzzled by results that indicated a smaller incentive actually produces a larger attitude change. Thus, Festinger developed the theory of “cognitive dissonance” about the experience of simultaneously holding two or more cognitions that are inconsistent. This condition can create discomfort, motivating the person to shift attitudes in order to alleviate the discomfort. This theory partially developed out of witnessing false rumors spreading in India after an earthquake in 1934. Ultimately, Festinger predicted that changes in attitudes would be greatest when the dissonance is large.
- Challenged i=other existing theories.
Method:
- Advertised as a study that deals with “measures of performance.”
- Participants emptied and refilled a tray with spools for 30 mins, then turn knobs a quarter turn for 30 mins. Then randomly assigned to 1 of 3 conditions. The control group were simply asked questions about their experience. The others were asked to help prep the fictional “group B” participants by “working with the study” and telling the “participant” that the tasks are super fun and enjoyable. They are offered either $1 or $20. They did so, and were then asked the same questions about their experience as the control group.
Results:
- Participants were asked 4 questions, on 10-point scales, of which 2 were related to testing Festinger’s theory: were the tasks interesting and enjoyable?would you have any desire to participate in another similar experiment?
- 1 and 4 were designed to test the theory of cognitive dissonance and were highly significant. Those who had been paid $1 to report that the tasks were fun agreed that they had enjoyed it and would do it again, whereas the other 2 groups did not.
Significance:
- Established and defined the concept of cognitive dissonance, especially the fact that the larger the pressure (ie. $20) the weaker the response will be (responses that were even more negative than the control group).
- CD was refined in 1984 into 4 steps (unwanted negative consequences, personal responsibility, physiological arousal, awareness of attitude-discrepant behavior).
Criticism:
To prevent criticisms from previous researchers in this area (alternate explanations like mental rehearsal, better arguments), the sessions where participants lied to incomers were recorded and rated by people who did not know which condition the participants were in.
Legacy:
