History of Psychiatry

Question 1

Alois Alzheimer

Answer 1

German psychiatrist

Neuropathologist

Colleague of Emil Kraepelin

Published the first case of “presenile dementia” which Kraepelin would later identify as Alzheimer’s disease

Question 2

Who identified Alzheimer’s disease

Answer 2

Emil Kraepelin.

Alzheimer identified the first published case of “presenile dementia”

Question 3

David Durkheim

Answer 3

French sociologist

Principal architect of modern social science with Karl Marx and Max Webber

His work was concerned with how societies could maintain their integrity and coherence in modernity (an era in which traditional social and religious ties are no longer assumed, and in which new social institutions have come into being).

1st major sociological work was The Division of Labour in Society (1893)

Published Rules of the Sociological Method and set up the first European department of sociology (1895); becoming France’ first profession of sociology

He established journal L’Annee Sociologique (1898)

First seminal monograph - Suicide, a study of suicidal rates amongst Catholic and Protestant populations (1897) pioneered modern social research which served to distinguish social science from psychology and political philosophy

The Elementary Forms of Religious Life (1912) presented a theory of religion, comparing the social and cultural lives of aboriginal and modern societies

He was a major proponent of structural functionalism, a foundational perspective in both sociology and anthropology

In his view social science should be purely holistic (aka sociology should study phenomena attributed to society at large rather than limited to actions of individuals)

Dominant force in French intellectual life

Died in 1917

Published on sociology of knowledge, morality, social stratification, religion, law, education and deviance

Question 4

Who came up with the theory of positivism

Answer 4

David Durkheim

He refined positivism (originally set forth by Auguste Comte), promoting what could be considered as a form of epistemological realism, as well as the use of hypothetic-deductive model in social science

Question 5

Collective consciousness

Answer 5

Durkheimian term

A fundamental sociological concept that refers to the set of shared beliefs, ideas, attitudes, and knowledge that are common to a social group or society

Question 6

Wilhelm Griesinger

Answer 6

1859 - Head of institution for mentally handicapped children in Mariaberg

From 1860 participated in the planning of the Burgholzli Mental Hospital in Zurich

1865 moved to Berlin and succeeded Moritz Heinrich Romberg as director at the university polyclinic. Also established 2 journals: Medicinisch-psychologische Gesellschaft and Archiv fur Psychiatrie und Nerwenkrankheiten

Wilhelm Griesinger Hospital in Berlin is named in his honour.

Valuable insights in psychopathic behaviour

Reforms concerning the mentally ill and the asylum system.

Question 7

Who integrated the mentally ill into society

Answer 7

Wilhelm Griesinger

Integration of the mentally ill into society and proposed the short term hospitalisation be combined with close cooperation of natural support system

Question 8

Karl Jaspers

Answer 8

German Psychiatrist and Philosopher

Strong influence on modern theology, psychiatry and philosophy

After training and practicing psychiatry he turned to philosophical inquiry and attempted to discover an innovative philosophical system

He was viewed as a major exponent of existentialism in Germany (he did not accept this label)

His dissatisfaction with the popular understanding of mental illness led him to question both the diagnostic criteria and the methods of clinical psychiatry

Published a revolutionary paper in 1910 in which he addressed the problem of whether paranoia was an aspect of personality or the result of biological changes. He studied several patients in detail, giving biographical information on the people concerned as well as providing notes on how the patients themselves felt about their symptoms = biographical model

Question 9

The biographical model

Answer 9

Karl Jaspers

Published a revolutionary paper in 1910 in which he addressed the problem of whether paranoia was an aspect of personality or the result of biological changes. He studied several patients in detail, giving biographical information on the people concerned as well as providing notes on how the patients themselves felt about their symptoms = biographical model

Published General Psychopathology in 1913

Question 10

Who wrote General Psychopathology

Answer 10

Karl Jaspers
1913

Many modern diagnostic criteria stem from his ideas in this book.

In particular Jaspers believed that psychiatrist should diagnose symptoms (particularly in psychosis) based on their form rather than content. E.g. in diagnosing a hallucination, the fact that a person experiences visual phenomena when no sensory stimuli account for it (form), assumes more importance than what the patient sees (content).

He also felt psychiatrist could diagnose delusions in the same way. E.g. clinicians should not consider a belief delusional based on the content or the belief, but only based on the way in which a patient holds such a belief.

Distinguished between primary and secondary delusions. PRIMARY are autochthonous (arising without apparent cause, appearing incomprehensible in the terms of normal mental processes)- Un-understandable. SECONDARY are influenced by the person’s background, current situation or mental state

Question 11

Who argued with Jaspers thinkings that primary delusions are un-understandable

Answer 11

R. D. Laing and Richard Bentall

They stress that taking this stance can lead therapists into the complacency of assuming that because they do not understand a patient, the patient is deluded

Question 12

Theodor Meynert

Answer 12

German-Austrian neuropathologist and anatomist burn in Dresden

Believed that disturbances in brain development could be a predisposition for psychiatric illness and that certain psychoses are reversible

His worked focused on brain anatomy, pathology and histology including mapping of intricate pathways and topography

Developed theories in regards to correlations between neuroanatomical and mental processes. He conceptualised that a coupling between on mental association and its temporal successor as a literal contact between cortical nerve cells linked by nerve fibres (and a series of cortical associations could therefore be constructed and being a “train of thought”

He theorised that ideas and memories are to be envisioned as being attached to specific cortical cells

He conceptualised that a conflict existed between the cerebral cortex and the sub-cortical regions as the primary cause for abnormal function of cerebral components

He formulated that a casual connection existed between cerebral pathologies and psychoses due to a lack of “cerebral nutrition” related to vasomotor functionality

His aim was to establish psychiatry as an exact science based on anatomy

Question 13

Founder of cerebral cortex architectonics

Answer 13

Theodore Meynert

Question 14

Who wrote the textbook Psychiatry. Klinik der Erkrankungen des Vorderhirns

Answer 14

Theodor Meiner
1884

His forewords were: The reader will find no other definition of psychiatry in this book, but the one given on the title page: Clinical Treatise on Disease of the Forebrain. The historical term for psychiatry (treatment of the soul), implies more than we can accomplish, and transcends the sounds of accurate scientific investigation

Question 15

Franz Nissl

Answer 15

Possibly the greatest neuropathologist of his day

Popularised the use of spinal puncture

Examined neural connections between the human cortex and thalamic nuclei

Research philosophy “As soon as we agree to see in all mental derangements the clinical expression of definite disease processes in the cortex, we remove the obstacles that make impossible agreement among alienists”

Question 16

Who popularised spinal puncture

Answer 16

Franz Nisse popularised it. It was introduced by Heinrich Quincke

Question 17

Carl Wernicke

Answer 17

German physician, anatomist, psychiatrist and neuropathologist

Began work after paul Broca published his findings on language deficits (Expressive Aphasia)

Noticed that not all language deficits were the result of damage to Broca’s areas. Rather, found that damage to the left posterior, superior temporal gyrus resulted in deficits in language comprehension = Receptive aphasia

Question 18

Wernicke’s areas

Answer 18

The left posterior, superior temporal gyrus

Question 19

Wilhelm Windelband

Answer 19

German philosopher

Introduced the terms nomothetic and idiographic

He argued that philosophy should engage in humanistic dialogue with the natural sciences rather than uncritically appropriating its methodologies

His interests in psychology and cultural sciences represented an opposition to psychologism and historicism schools by a critical philosophic system

Question 20

Nomothetic

Answer 20

Wilhelm Windelband

Studies on large populations

Question 21

Idiographic

Answer 21

Wilhelm Windelband

Single case studies

Question 22

Who showed that neurological changes in general paralysis were different to those in dementia

Answer 22

Franz Nissl

Question 23

Who described a phenomenological approach to psychopathology

Answer 23

Karl Jaspers

Question 24

Who claimed “mental illnesses are brain illnesses”

Answer 24

Wilhelm Griesinger

Question 25

Who argued that philosophy should engage in humanistic dialogue with the natural sciences rather than uncritically appropriating its methodologies

Answer 25

Wilhelm Windelband

Question 26

Who examined the neural connections between the human cortex and thalamic nuclei

Answer 26

Franz Nissl

Question 27

Who described the classic symptoms of schizophrenia to include delusional perception and thought echo

Answer 27

Kurt Schneider In order to differentiate schizophrenia from other psychotic illnesses, he listed the first-rank symptoms as being central features of schizophrenia (but not necessary for its diagnosis). There are 11 SFRS - Delusional perception - Thought insertion, thought withdrawal, thought broadcast - Third person auditory hallucinations, hallucinations in the form of running commentary, thought echo - Somatic passivity, and passivity of affect, impulse and volition

Question 28

Who identified 'early maternal loss' and 'lack of confiding relationship' as vulnerability factors for the development of depression

Answer 28

Brown and Harris's study in Camberwell, London (1978) showed that the following factors increased the vulnerability to depression in women - Lack of a confiding relationship - Unemployment - Three of more children under the age of 14 years - Loss of mother before the age of 11

Question 29

Who described the classic symptoms of schizophrenia to include loosening of association and ambivalence

Answer 29

``` Eugene Bleuler Listed the 4 As - Ambivalence - Affective abnormalities - Loosening of Association - Autism ```

Question 30

Who explained that the underlying dysfunctional beliefs of depression include negative views of the self, the world, and the future

Answer 30

Aaron Beck | Cognitive triad of depression

Question 31

Who described schizophrenia as being type 1 (acute) and type 2 (chronic)

Answer 31

TJ Crow - Type 1 schizophrenia has an acute onset, comprises of positive symptoms, and responds well to antipsychotics with a good prognosis. He made the assumption that the brain was structurally normal - Type 2 schizophrenia as a chronic onset, comprises of negative symptoms, and responds poorly to antipsychotics with a poor prognosis. There is an abnormal brain structure (cortical atrophy and ventricular dilatation)

Question 32

Through animal experiments, who found that love and comfort is necessary for attachment

Answer 32

Harry Harlow Conducted experiments on monkeys and found that baby monkeys formed attachment to comfortable, but milkless dolls that offered comfort and security rather than metallic dolls that provided milk

Question 33

Who identified that high expressed emotions play a role in the aetiology of schizophrenia

Answer 33

George Brown

Question 34

William Cullen

Answer 34

Scottish proponent of moral treatment | 1710-1790

Question 35

Donald Hebb

Answer 35

Canadian psychologist The Organisation of Human Behaviour Developed and applied an inverted U-shaped curve to the relationship between perforation and anxiety Controversially involved in research on interrogation techniques founded by the CIA

Question 36

Robert Whytt

Answer 36

1714-1766 | 1764: On Nervous, Hypochondriac, or Hysteric Diseases, to which are prefixed some Remarks on the Sympathy of Nerves

Question 37

Herbert Graf

Answer 37

1904-1973 Austrian-American opera producer, Born in Vienna in 1904, he was the son of Max Graf, the Austrian author, critic, musicologist and member of Sigmund Freud's circle of friends. He was Little Hans

Question 38

With whom is "Little Hans" best associated with

Answer 38

Sigmund Freud Herbert Graff was LITTLE HANS Discussed in Freud's 1909 study Analysis of a Phobia in a Five-year-old Boy

Question 39

Little Albert Experiment

Answer 39

John Watson 1920 Introduction of loud sound (unconditioned stimulus), resulted in fear (unconditioned response) - a natural response Introduction of a rat (neutral stimulus) paired with the loud sound (uncontrolled stimulus) resulted in fear (unconditioned response) Successive introductions of a rate (conditioned stimulus) resulted in fear (conditioned response)

Question 40

Harry Stack Sullivan

Answer 40

1892-1949 Advocated for psychotherapy for patient's with schizophrenia Established 'interpersonal theory' Influenced by Adolf Meyer's belief that psychiatric symptoms represent a pathological reaction to personal circumstances

Question 41

Ernst Kretschamer

Answer 41

Described schizoid personality Believed that there was a relationship between three different physical types and certain psychological disorders Specifically, he believed that the short, round pyknic type was more prone to cyclothymic or bipolar disorders, and that the tall thin asthenic type was more prone to schizophrenia His research (involving thousands of institutionalised patients), was suspect because he failed to control for age and the schizophrenics were considerably younger than the bipolar patients - and so more likely to be thinner

Question 42

Who described schizoid personality

Answer 42

Ernst Kretschamer

Question 43

Nathan Kline

Answer 43

Investigated reserpine Over 2 year trial found that 70% of patients suffering from schizophrenia were markedly relieved from their symptoms After Reserpine, he investigated the properties of iproniazid as an antidepressant His work has been acknowledged as a major factor in opening a new ear in psychiatry - Psychopharmacology

Question 44

What is reserpine

Answer 44

A derivative of Rauwolfia serpentina Commonly used in India to treat physical complaints, and in the US to treat high blood pressure Then Nathan Kline used it as a tranquilliser

Question 45

Max Hamilton

Answer 45

Depression scale

Question 46

Max Fink

Answer 46

American neurologist and psychiatrist Best known for his work on ECT Founded the journal of Convulsive Therapy in 1985 Put forward a position that ECT-induced memory loss is a hysterical symptom with parallels to the Camelford water pollution incident

Question 47

Eugene Bleuler

Answer 47

1857-1939 Most notable for his contributions to the understanding of mental illness and for coining the terms - Schizophrenia - Schizoid - Autism - Ambivalence (Sigmund Freud called this Bleuler's happily chose term)

Question 48

Erving Goffman

Answer 48

1922-1982 Canadian-American sociologist and writer Considered the most influential American sociologist of the 20th century Best known contribution to social theory is his study of symbolic interaction 1956 book: The presentation of self in everyday life Major work in asylum 1961, stigma 1963, interaction ritual 1967, frame analysis 1974, and forms of talk 1981 Major areas of study included the sociology of everyday life, social interaction, the social construction of self, social organisation (framing) of experience, and particular elements of social life such as 'total institutions' and 'stigma'

Question 49

With whom is the term :illness of the nerves' best associated

Answer 49

Robert Whytt

Question 50

Who first described the concept of "transference"

Answer 50

Sigmund Frued

Question 51

Who described the case of Anna O

Answer 51

Josef Breuer

Question 52

Who argued that mental hospital exercised an ominous kind of control over patients because the functioned as 'total institutions'

Answer 52

Erving Goffman

Question 53

Plato

Answer 53

Classical Greek Philosopher, mathematician, student of Socrates, writer of philosophical dialogues, and founder of the Academy in Athens (the first institution of higher learning in the Western World) Mentor - Socrates Student - Aristotle Together with socrates and aristotle he helped to lay the foundations of Western philosophy and science Plato often discussed the father-son relationship and the "question" of whether a father's interest in his sons has much to do with how well his sons turn out. A boy in ancient Athens was socially located by his family identity, and Plato often refers to this characters in terms of their parental and fraternal relationships.

Question 54

Socrates

Answer 54

Socrates was not a family man, and saw himself as the son of his mother, who was apparently a midwife Socrates floats the idea that knowledge is a matter of recollection, and not of learning, observation, or study Socrates had something to say on" - politics and art - religion and science - justice and medicine - virtue and vice - crime and punishment - pleasure and pain - rhetoric and rhapsody - human nature and sexuality - love and wisdom

Question 55

Arthur Schopenhauer

Answer 55

1788-1860 German philosopher Best known for his book: The World as Will and Representation - In this book he claimed that our world is driven by a continually dissatisfied will, continually seeking satisfaction He thought that "the truth was recognised by the stages of India"; consequently, his solutions to suffering were similar to those of Vedantic and Buddhist thinkers; his faith in "transcendent ideality" led him to accept atheism and learn from Christian philosophy At age 25 he published his doctor dissertation, On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason. In this he examined the four distinct aspects of experience in the phenomenal world; consequently, he has been influential in the history of phenomenology. He influenced a long list of thinkers, including Friedrich Nietzsche, Richard Wagney, Ludwig Wittgenstein, Erwin Schrodinger, Albert Einstein, Sigmund Freud, Otto Rank, Carl Jung, Joseph Cambell, Leo Tolstoy, Thomas Mann, and Jorge Luis Borges Influential in his treatment of a man's psychology than he was in the realm of philosophy One ought rather to be surprised that a thing (sex) which plays throughout so important a part in human life has hitherto practically been disregarded by philosophers altogether, and lies before us as raw and untreated material He gave name to a force within a man which he felt had invariable precedence over reason: the Will to Live or Will to Life (Wille zum Leben), defined as an inherent drive within human beings, and indeed all creatures, to stay alive and reproduce Refused to conceive of love as either trifling or accidental, but rather understood it to be an immensely powerful force lying unseen within man's psyche and dramatically shaping the world These ideas foreshadowed the discovery of evolution, Freud's concepts of the libido and the unconscious mind, and evolutionary psychology in general

Question 56

Martin "Marty" Seligman

Answer 56

Born 1942 Americal psychologist, educators and author of self-help books Theory of learned helplessness Foundational experiments of learned helplessness began at University of Pennsylvania in 1967, as an extension of his interest in depression By accident, Seligman and his colleagues discovered that the conditioning of dogs led to outcomes that were opposite to the predictions of B.F. Skinner's behaviourism, then a leading psychological theory Wrote about positive psychology: The Optimist Child, Child's Play, Learned Optimism, Authentic Happiness, and Flourish Works with Christopher Peterson to create a "positive counterpart to the DSM" - Character Strengths and Virtues is designed to look at what can do right

Question 57

George Brown and Tirril Harris

Answer 57

Landmark 1987 study of the Social Origins of Depression Described life events as key vulnerability "risk" factors for depression - early maternal loss - lack of a confiding relationship - greater than three children under the age of 14 at home - unemployment Developed the "life events and difficulties scale" as a measure of the stressfulness of life events

Question 58

Criminal Anthropology

Answer 58

A combination of the study of the human species and the study of criminals A field of offender profiling, based on perceived links between the nature of a crime and the personality or physical appearance of the offender Work of the Italian school of criminology of the late 19th Century - Cesare Ombroso - Enrico Ferri - Rafaele Garofalo

Question 59

Moral Insanity

Answer 59

A type of mental disorder consisting of abnormal emotions and behaviours in the apparent absence of intellectual impairments, delusions or hallucinations It was an accepted diagnosis in Europe and America through the second half of the 19th century James Cowles Prichard coined the term in 1835 in his Treatise on insanity and other disorders affecting the mind The concept was indebted to the work of Philippe Pinel - this was acknowledged by Prichard. Panel had described mental diseases of only partial, affective, insanity. Panel's concept Manie sans delire - referred to insanity without delusion. That is the sufferer was thought to be mad in one area only and thus the personality of the individual might be distorted, but his or her intellectual faculties were unimpaired

Question 60

James Prichard

Answer 60

Coined the term Moral Insanity Defined as: Madness consisting in a morbid perversion of the natural feelings, affections, inclinations, temper, habits, moral dispositions, and natural impulses, without any remarkable disorder or defect of the interest or knowing and reasoning faculties, and particularly without any insane illusion or hallucinations

Question 61

Neurasthenis

Answer 61

First described by Americal Neurologist George Miller Beard in 1869 A syndrome of physical and mental exhaustion previously called hypochondriasis Prevalent and fashionable amongst the upper classes until 1920s Treated by 'rest cures', exercise, massage and the application of electrical stimuli

Question 62

Who first described "learned helplessness

Answer 62

Seligman

Question 63

Who's work has founded clinical application to body dysmorphic disorders

Answer 63

Morris

Question 64

Who claimed that 'the world is driven by a continually dissatisfied will, continually seeking satisfaction

Answer 64

Schopenhauer

Question 65

Who's view represented an opposition to psychologism and historicism schools by a critical philosophic system

Answer 65

Windelband

Question 66

Who frequently discussed the father-son relationship in his/her works

Answer 66

Plato

Question 67

Who described subjective symptoms as those understood by empathy

Answer 67

Karl Jaspers

Question 68

Who described Phrenology

Answer 68

Joseph Gall

Question 69

Who wrote "the object of morality

Answer 69

G J Warnock

Question 70

Who is best associated with "A treatise on insanity"

Answer 70

Pritchard

Question 71

Who is best associated with "Dementia Praecox or the Group of Schizophrenia"

Answer 71

Bleuler

Question 72

Who is best associated with the "Interpretation of dreams"

Answer 72

Freud

Question 73

Who is best associated with "an introduction to the physical methods of treatment in psychiatry"

Answer 73

Sargent

Question 74

Who is best associated with "psychopath Sexualise"

Answer 74

Von Kraft-Ebbing

Question 75

Who wrote: Madness and Civilisation: A history of insanity in the age of reason

Answer 75

Michael Foulcault

Question 76

Michael Foulcault

Answer 76

French historian, philosopher and sociologist in 1965 following the original 1961 publication and begins in the middle ages

Question 77

Who wrote: A history of psychiatry: From the era of the asylum to the age of prozac

Answer 77

Prof Edward Shorter 1997

Question 78

Who wrote: Moses and Monotheism

Answer 78

Sigmund Freud | 1939

Question 79

Who wrote: The myth of mental illness

Answer 79

Thomas Szasz

Question 80

Who published: Museums of Madness in 1979

Answer 80

Andrew Scull This introduced a radically new taken on psychiatry as representing social power and social control, thus reinforcing the status quo via an often doubtful construction of "mental illness"

Question 81

Who published: Hysteria: The biography (Biographies of disease) in 2009

Answer 81

Andrew Scull

Question 82

Who wrote George III and the Mad business

Answer 82

Hunter and Macalpine | 1969

Question 83

The 'meliorist' history of psychiatry - things getting better, in terms of more accurate diagnoses, more thoughtful doctors and more humane treatment was challenged by

Answer 83

Andrew Scull

Question 84

Who postulated that a 'great confinement' took place in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries

Answer 84

Michael Foucault Whereby the world of free thinking and imaginative 'unreason' had been corralled by the mechanistic warriors of reason and social control

Question 85

Who was the famed eighteenth-century "mad doctor" and physician to Bethel Hospital

Answer 85

John Monro | 1715-1791

Question 86

Who introduced a radically new taken on psychiatry as representing social power and social control, thus reinforcing the status quo via an often doubtful construction of "mental illness"

Answer 86

Andrew Scull through his ground breaking publication Museums of Madness in 1979