History of Planning

Question 1

NY Tenement House Law

Answer 1

1901
The New York State Tenement House Act of 1901, or “New Tenement Law,” was a housing reform law aimed at improving living conditions in New York’s tenement buildings. Technically a tenement was any building that housed three or more families, but the term had come to mean housing for poor families that lacked proper amenities. The law set requirements for new buildings to improve light and air quality for residents, including external-facing windows in each room, an open courtyard, improved ventilation, indoor toilets, and better fire safety.

Question 2

McMillan Plan

Answer 2

1902

The Senate Park Commission wrote the McMillan Plan, a landmark comprehensive planning document, to revive and update the L’Enfant Plan for Washington, D.C. The McMillan Plan focused on the city’s parks and monuments. It redesigned the National Mall and determined the locations of the Lincoln Memorial, Ulysses S. Grant Memorial, Union Station, and U.S. Department of Agriculture Building, among other changes. The McMillan Plan is still the basis of most of Washington, D.C.’s planning, and helped boost the career of Daniel Burnham, who worked on the plan. It could be considered the first real expression in the United States of the City Beautiful movement, which emphasized grandeur and beautification in planning.

Question 3

Early City Planning Commission

Answer 3

1902
George Nash, Daniel Burnham, John Carrere, Arnold Brunner
Cleveland, OH

Cleveland’s chapter of the Architectural Institute of America and the city’s Chamber of Commerce presented a bill to form a “Board of City Planning for Ohio Cities.” Ohio Gov. George Nash fulfilled the bill by appointing Daniel Burnham, John Carrere, and Arnold Brunner as the Group Plan Commission for Cleveland. Although not technically a city planning commission, this group essentially acted like one, with the power to give advice about many broad planning improvements in the city.

Question 4

Letchworth

Answer 4

1903
Ebenezer Howard
Letchworth, England

Construction commenced on Letchworth, England, the first Garden City, based on the principles of Ebenezer Howard. The Garden City Movement focused on creating self-contained communities with residences, industry, and agriculture, surrounded by undeveloped green areas. These planned communities inspired the similar New Town movement in the United States.

Question 5

Public Lands Commission

Answer 5

1903
Gifford Pinchot, Theodore Roosevelt

President Theodore Roosevelt appointed the second Public Lands Commission to study public land policy and laws for open range and federal lands. The commission was fronted by Gifford Pinchot, head of the Bureau of Forestry and a founder of the modern conservation movement. The group made several recommendations for the use of public lands for grazing and timber purposes, many of which were controversial with livestock, lumber, and mining interests.

Question 6

Antiquities Act

Answer 6

1906
Theodore Roosevelt

President Theodore Roosevelt signed the Antiquities Act into law to preserve archeological sites on public lands. The act also authorized the president to protect landmarks, structures, and objects of historic or scientific interest by designating them as national monuments. It was a landmark in the preservation of historic places and structures, as well as cultural resources. Devils Tower in Wyoming was the first monument to be protected under the act.

Question 7

NY Congestion Committee

Answer 7

1907
Florence Kelley, Mary Simkhovitch
New York, NY

Florence Kelley and Mary Simkhovitch, two veterans of New York’s settlement house movement, founded the Committee on Congestion of Population in New York to look at solutions for overcrowding in poor parts of the city. The organization hired Benjamin Marsh as its first executive secretary. The reform coalition recruited from more than two dozen organizations and had a broad focus, but its first project was the New York Congestion Exhibit of 1908.

Question 8

First Official City Planning Commission

Answer 8

1907
Hartford, CT

Hartford, Connecticut, became the first city in the United States with an official and permanent City Planning Commission. Prior to this, planning commissions were generally disbanded once a plan had been developed. A planning commission makes recommendations about the planning and zoning of a city or town to the local council.

Question 9

NY Congestion Exhibit

Answer 9

1908
The New York Congestion Exhibit began at the Museum of Natural History in New York City. The event was organized by social reformers, including Florence Kelley, Lillian Wald, Mary Simkhovitch, and Gaylord White, who believed that urban congestion was the primary cause of problems with housing, child labor, and poverty. After three weeks at the museum, the exhibit toured around the country, gradually pushing city administrators to launch commissions to look into congestion.

Question 10

Ford Launches Model T

Answer 10

1908

Ford began production of the Model T. Assembly line production for the car kept its price relatively low ($850 in 1908, but down to less than $300 in 1925). Its affordability opened up car ownership to a much wider range of Americans and spurred the country’s car culture. In turn, planners had to find a way to fit more cars on roads and in communities.

Question 11

Forest Hills Gardens

Answer 11

1909
Frederick Law Olmsted Jr., Grosvenor Atterbury
Queens, NY

The Russell Sage Foundation commissioned the design and construction of Forest Hill Gardens, the first planned “garden suburb” in the United States, with the goal of providing mixed-income housing surrounded by green spaces. Frederick Law Olmsted Jr. planned the community, while architect Grosvenor Atterbury designed many of the houses. Although the community showed the possibility of building affordably for a range of incomes, it became a victim of its own popularity, eventually becoming one of the highest-priced enclaves in Queens, New York.

Question 12

First Course in City Planning

Answer 12

1909
Harvard University

Harvard College introduced “The Principles of City Planning,” the first college course in city planning, through its Landscape Architecture department. The university was also the first to launch programs in city and regional planning, in 1923, and urban design, in 1960.

Question 13

First National Conference on City Planning

Answer 13

1909
Benjamin Marsh
Washington D.C.

Benjamin Marsh, at the impetus of the Committee on Congestion of Population, organized the first national meeting on planning, the National Conference on City Planning, in Washington, D.C. Most of the prominent urbanists of the time attended the event, including Frederick Law Olmsted, John Nolen, and George Ford. The conference led directly to the creation of the American City Planning Institute in 1917.

Question 14

Plan of Chicago (book)

Answer 14

1909
Daniel Burnham, Edward Bennett
Chicago, IL

The Plan of Chicago, written by Daniel Burnham and Edward Bennett, was the first comprehensive metropolitan plan in the United States. Based on three years of research into how city growth and infrastructure impacted its residents, the plan concentrated on physical improvements, such as new parks, lakefront upgrades, new civic and cultural centers, and transportation development. The Burnham Plan remains highly influential to the philosophy and process of planning cities.

Question 15

Manual of the Plan of Chicago (book)

Answer 15

1911
Walter Moody

Manual of the Plan of Chicago was written by Walter Moody and distributed to all schools in Chicago. The text focused on the development of the 1909 Plan of Chicago, the city’s history, and its transportation problems. Six editions of the manual were published up through 1924, making it the first initiative to educate children about planning.

Question 16

Early Version of Zoning

Answer 16

1913
NY, MN, WI, IL

Legislatures in New York, Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Illinois separately allowed some cities to create residential districts where no manufacturing or commercial establishments could operate. Although the governor of Illinois vetoed the act in that state, the moves are now seen as an early version of zoning.

Question 17

Carrying Out the City Plan (book)

Answer 17

1914
Flavel Shurtleff, Frederick Law Olmsted Jr.

At the request of Frederick Law Olmsted Jr., Boston attorney Flavel Shurtleff wrote Carrying Out the City Plan, the first text on the legal framework for city planning. The book was based on two years of research, including examining city planning outside of the United States. Shurtleff found that communities need to share information and that planning commissions are vital to plans being implemented.

Question 18

First Municipally Employed Planner

Answer 18

1914
Harland Bartholomew

Harland Bartholomew became the first full-time public-sector city planner in the United States when he was hired by Newark, New Jersey. Bartholomew came to the city in 1912 to help engineering firm E.P. Goodrich develop a comprehensive plan, and he was retained to stay on after Newark ended its contract with Goodrich. He completed the plan in 1915.

Question 19

Cities in Evolution (book)

Answer 19

1915
Sir Patrick Geddes

Scottish sociologist Sir Patrick Geddes, a pioneer in the field of urban planning, published the book Cities in Evolution. Geddes pushed for “constructive and conservative” changes to improve a community, rather than sweeping, monolithic plans, which he believed was less destructive to neighborhood life and would do a better job of preventing congestion. He also promoted observation of communities based on the scientific method and civic surveys. Geddes was a major influence on other planners, including Lewis Mumford, Raymond Unwin, and Frank Mears.

Question 20

Comprehensive Zoning Resolution

Answer 20

1916
George McAneny, Edward Bassett

The 1916 Zoning Resolution was written by George McAneny and Edward Bassett as a response to concerns about overdevelopment in New York City. The resolution divided the city into “zones” based on the primary activity in that area, and created building height and setback guidelines for each zone. It is considered the first citywide zoning code in the United States.

Question 21

National Park Service

Answer 21

1916
Woodrow Wilson

President Woodrow Wilson signed a bill creating the National Park Service within the U.S. Department of the Interior, which was tasked with preserving natural and historic areas in the United States. The responsibilities of the service have grown from the original 35 national parks and monuments under its control to more than 400 national parks, such as Great Smoky Mountains National Park and the Grand Canyon National Park.

Question 22

American City Planning Institute (ACPI)

Answer 22

1917
Frederick Law Olmsted Jr.

The American City Planning Institute, one of the predecessors of the American Planning Association, was founded, with Frederick Law Olmsted Jr. as its first president. The organization served to formalize the group that had organized the first National Conference on City Planning in 1909. The American City Planning Institute later became the American Institute of Planners.

Question 23

Majority of Americans Live in Urban Areas

Answer 23

1920
The 1920 U.S. Census was the first to report that more than half of the nation’s population was living in urban areas, showing a shift away from rural regions.

Question 24

Proposal of Appalachian Trail

Answer 24

1921
Pioneering conservationist, forester, and planner Benton McKaye published an article in the Journal of the American Institute of Architects proposing the construction of the Appalachian Trail. “An Appalachian Trail: A Project in Regional Planning” highlighted the benefits of the trail as recreation, health and recuperation, and employment opportunities. The first section of the trail opened on October 7, 1923.

Question 25

Country Club Plaza

Answer 25

1922
J.C. Nichols
Kansas City, Missouri

Developer J.C. Nichols established Country Club Plaza, which eventually grew into a 14-block shopping center. The Kansas City, Missouri, development is considered the first car-oriented shopping center, as it included gas stations and a significant amount of free parking. It was also one of the first shopping centers to be located outside of a downtown central business district.

Question 26

Standard State Zoning Enabling Act

Answer 26

1922
A U.S. Department of Commerce committee issued the third draft of the Standard State Zoning Enabling Act, a model law developed to help states create zoning restrictions in their jurisdictions. This draft contained important language defining a zoning commission and calling for a plan for zoning regulations. This was followed in 1927 by A Standard City Planning Enabling Act to help states understand the organization and powers of city and regional planning commissions, the making of city and regional plans, and controlling the layout of new subdivisions. These acts still provide the institutional structure for planning and zoning in many states.

Question 27

Creation of Regulatory Taking

Answer 27

1922
5th Amendment (takings clause)

The U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Pennsylvania Coal Company v. Mahon that changes in the value of property have an impact on whether a regulatory act is a taking that requires compensation. The decision created the concept of regulatory taking, in which government regulations on the uses of the property diminish its value, often requiring the government to compensate the property owner.

Question 28

Elisabeth May Herlihy

Answer 28

1923
Elisabeth May Herlihy guided Boston in adopting its first comprehensive zoning ordinance, making her one of the first women to be seen as an expert in planning. She was secretary and a member of the Boston City Planning Board, and she later guided the effort to build the city’s Central Artery. Herlihy was the first woman to join the American City Planning Institute.

Question 29

Regional Planning Association of America (RPAA)

Answer 29

1923
The Regional Planning Association of America held its first meeting. The organization was a collaborative group of New York City-based thinkers on city and regional planning, including Clarence Stein, Benton MacKaye, Lewis Mumford, Henry Wright, and Alexander Bing. For the next decade, the RPAA worked together on creative planning projects such as the prototype communities Sunnyside Homes, Queens, and Radburn, New Jersey. It also worked toward open space preservation in urban regions and housing equity.

Question 30

Robert Moses

Answer 30

1924
Robert Moses was named chairman of the New York State Council of Parks. This, along with positions as commissioner of the New York City Department of Parks, commissioner of the New York City Planning Commission, and chairman of the New York State Power Authority, among many others, made Moses one of the most influential and powerful people in urban development. Moses has been praised for greatly increasing the amount of parkland in New York City and helping revive the region after the Great Depression. He also has been criticized for being an autocrat and encouraging racial segregation with his developments.

Question 31

First Comprehensive Plan

Answer 31

1925
Cincinnati became the first American city to have a comprehensive plan approved and adopted into law by a city council. Previously, comprehensive plans had been developed by civic organizations and adopted by cities. Alfred Bettman, Ladislas Segoe, George Ford, and Ernest Goodrich worked on the Official Plan of the City of Cincinnati, which included factors like schools and play yards, garbage and refuse disposal, ways to finance improvements, and other municipal issues.

Question 32

First State-Level Land-Use Plan

Answer 32

1925
Clarence Stein

The New York State Housing and Regional Planning Commission, chaired by Clarence Stein, published the first state-level land-use plan in the United States. The plan, which was primarily written by Henry Wright, focused on providing transportation corridors and settlement areas, as well as on preserving rural land. A state-level land-use plan can promote effective planning for factors that have an impact outside of one community, such as growth and environmental protection.

Question 33

Euclid v. Ambler

Answer 33

1926
14th amendment

In the case of Village of Euclid, Ohio, v. Ambler Realty Co., the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the village of Euclid did not infringe on the rights of Ambler Realty by establishing its zoning ordinance. The ruling more broadly affirmed the constitutionality of zoning and led to the growth of zoning ordinances across the United States.

Question 34

Radburn, New Jersey

Answer 34

1928
Clarence Stein, Henry Wright, Marjorie Sewell Cautley

Construction began on Radburn, New Jersey, a community designed with the intention of adapting the British Garden City concept to American legal and social standards. Radburn was a Regional Planning Association of America project designed by Clarence Stein and Henry Wright, with landscape architecture by Marjorie Sewell Cautley. Innovations included the separation of automobile traffic, the use of the superblock to cluster different types of housing around parkland, and creation of a community organization to handle some municipal functions.

Question 35

The Neighborhood Unit

Answer 35

1929
Clarence Perry

Clarence Perry published his monograph “The Neighborhood Unit,” which provided a framework for the concept of a neighborhood within a city. His model focused on a walkable residential district centered around a community-oriented school, with a business district on the edge and graded streets to limit external traffic through the neighborhood. Although designed for cities, the neighborhood unit became the basis for much of suburban development in the mid-20th century. Perry’s model was extremely popular in planning, although it has been criticized for being overly based in nostalgia for rural living and for encouraging racial, ethnic, religious, and economic segregation.

Question 36

First Historic District Ordinance

Answer 36

1931
Charleston, South Carolina

Charleston, South Carolina, became the first city in the United States to pass an ordinance to protect a historic district. The Charleston Historic District covers most of the city’s downtown residential area and is a National Landmark Historic District.

Question 37

Central Place Theory

Answer 37

1933
Walter Christaller

German geographer Walter Christaller developed his Central Place Theory in order to model patterns in the spatial arrangement, size, and numbers of communities in a region. The model also looked at the economic relationships of these communities, such as the market area that each settlement could serve. Although the theory has been criticized as being overly rigid and based on flawed assumptions, it was still an influential work in the study of community relationships.

Question 38

Tennessee Valley Authority

Answer 38

1933

President Franklin Roosevelt signed the TVA Act, creating the Tennessee Valley Authority in the Tennessee River Valley across seven states. The corporation was federally owned in response to distrust of privately owned utility companies. The TVA built 16 hydroelectric dams between 1933 and 1944, using hydropower to improve electricity access to more than 40,000 square miles of the region, which in turn attracted industry and jobs. The corporation also worked on forest restoration to prevent soil erosion and taught better farming techniques.

Question 39

Public Works Administration

Answer 39

1933
The National Industrial Recovery Act was passed, creating the Public Works Administration, which planned and funded large-scale public works such as roads, schools, dams, and bridges. As part of the New Deal program that responded to the Great Depression, the PWA was intended to increase employment and improve the economy.

Question 40

National Planning Board

Answer 40

1933
The National Planning Board was established under the authority of the Public Works Administration. The board, which included Frederick Delano, Charles Merriam, Wesley Mitchell, and Charles Eliot, worked to promote the idea of planning in public works and push for comprehensive regional plans. Over the next decade, the NPB evolved into the National Resources Board, the National Resources Council, and finally the National Resources Planning Board.

Question 41

First Multistate Regional Planning Commission

Answer 41

1934
Representatives of the planning boards of Washington, Oregon, Idaho, and Montana formed the first multistate regional planning commission. The commission focused on the need to plan for new agricultural and industrial development in response to federal investment in power, reclamation, and navigation projects. Multistate regional planning commissions can tackle planning-related issues that have an impact across a broader region than just one state.

Question 42

American Society of Planning Officials (ASPO)

Answer 42

1934
The American Society of Planning Officials was formed with Walter Blucher as executive director. The group’s membership primarily consisted of public officials involved in planning, such as citizen planning commissioners and city managers. ASPO aimed to improve communication among professional planners and better distribute information about planning. ASPO was one of two organizations that merged in 1978 to form the American Planning Association.

Question 43

Housing Act of 1934

Answer 43

1934
President Franklin Roosevelt signed the National Housing Act into law. The law created the Federal Housing Administration and the Federal Savings and Loan Insurance Corporation as part of a broader attempt to revive the housing market during the Great Depression. The FHA standardized the 30-year, low-interest mortgage, spurring a post-war housing boom in which national home ownership rate jumped to almost 70 percent of households and more and more Americans moved to suburbs.

Question 44

Redlining Maps

Answer 44

1935
Home Owners’ Loan Corporation (HOLC)

The Federal Home Loan Bank Board commissioned the Home Owners’ Loan Corporation to appraise real estate risk levels in 239 cities. The HOLC’s security maps consistently graded African American neighborhoods as “hazardous.” These maps, along with similar resources developed by private firms, institutionalized the already existant practice of “redlining,” or refusing to give mortgage loans in areas where mostly African Americans lived.

Question 45

Resettlement Administration

Answer 45

1935
President Franklin Roosevelt established the Resettlement Administration with the goal of helping Americans from struggling urban and rural areas. The RA focused on providing financial aid for these Americans, improving land conservation, and building new infrastructure. The administration highlighted the importance of cooperation and collective living for farm families and tenant farmers, moving many into model farm communities and planned communities. The agency also created the three Greenbelt communities of Greenbelt, Maryland; Greenhills, Ohio; and Greendale, Wisconsin, which were based on Ebenezer Howard’s Garden City concept. Conservatives criticized these initiatives as socialistic, and the RA was incorporated into the new Farm Security Administration in 1937.

Question 46

The Planners’ Journal

Answer 46

1935
The American Institute of Planners published the first volume of The Planners’ Journal. The publication became Journal of the American Institute of Planners in 1945 and Journal of the American Planning Association in 1979. The journal focuses on research, commentaries, and book reviews for practicing planners, policy makers, scholars, students, and citizens of urban, suburban, and rural areas.

Question 47

Wagner-Steagall Act

Answer 47

1937
President Franklin Roosevelt signed the United States Housing Act into law. The act, also known as the Wagner-Steagall Act, focused primarily on improving housing for poor Americans. It created the U.S. Housing Authority, which loaned about $800 million between 1937 and 1941 to build low-rent housing developments. Much of the act was drafted by public housing advocate and planning educator Catherine Bauer Wurster, who also served as Director of Research and Information of the Housing Authority for two years.

Question 48

ACPI Becomes the American Institute of Planners (API)

Answer 48

1939
The American City Planning Institute changed its name to the American Institute of Planners.

Question 49

The City (Documentary)

Answer 49

1939
The American Institute of Planners produced a documentary film called The City and screened it at the New York World’s Fair. The documentary compared the congestion and stress of urban living with the more relaxed environment of planned communities. It was based on an idea by Catherine Bauer Wurster, written by Lewis Mumford and Pare Lorentz, and scored by Aaron Copeland. The City was selected for the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress in 1998.

Question 50

Telesis

Answer 50

1939
Telesis, a group of architects, landscape architects, and urban planners, formed with the intention of preserving and enhancing the environmental and cultural qualities of the San Francisco Bay region. The group, with members including T.J. Kent, Catherine Bauer Wurster, Corwin Mocine, and William Spangle, also looked to use social criteria to solve physical problems and include the public in planning. Telesis produced an exhibit on planning at the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art and helped develop the planning program at the University of California at Berkeley.

Question 51

Cities Start Losing Population to Suburbs

Answer 51

1940
For the first time, the U.S. Census showed more population growth in suburbs than in central cities.

Question 52

G.I. Bill

Answer 52

1944
The Serviceman’s Readjustment Act, or G.I. Bill, was signed into law by President Franklin Roosevelt. The bill provided a variety of benefits to World War II veterans, including medical care, college tuition, unemployment benefits, and job counseling. Through the bill, veterans also had access to guaranteed loans to buy a home, farm, or business. This contributed to the increase in suburbanization as many more people could afford to buy new houses.

Question 53

Park Forest, Illinois

Answer 53

1946
Nathan Manilow, Carroll Sweet, and Philip Klutznick held a press conference to announce the development of Park Forest, Illinois, as a new self-governing community. The planned community was designed by Elbert Peets to attract veterans returning from World War II, and included a large park system, an outdoor shopping center, and a town hall. Park Forest was emblematic of the new suburbs that sprang up following the G.I. Bill of 1944.

Question 54

Levittown, NY

Answer 54

Construction began on Levittown, New York, using mass-production strategies that built a house every 16 minutes during the peak of development. Levitt and Sons built the town between 1947 and 1951, and another near Philadelphia between 1952 and 1958, to capitalize on veterans returning from World War II and looking for housing. Like many suburban communities, Levittown was segregated, with a clause in the standard lease for homes limiting use and occupation to “members of the Caucasian race.” The Committee to End Discrimination in Levittown fought against the clause, leading to it being removed in 1949, although the community remained primarily white.

Question 55

Code of Professional Conduct for Planners

Answer 55

1948
The American Institute of Planners published an early code of professional conduct for planners, focusing on the profession’s responsibility to the public, the client, and other planners. This code of conduct was revised many times, but eventually became the current AICP Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct.

Question 56

Shelley v. Kraemer

Answer 56

1948
14th Amendment

The U.S. Supreme Court ruled that racially restrictive covenants that prohibit people of a certain race from renting or owning real property in a specific area are unenforceable in court. The case centered around an African American family that moved into a neighborhood with a racially restrictive covenant and was sued by a white family that wanted to enforce the covenant. The court found that although such covenants did not violate the 14th Amendment, their enforcement by state courts did.

Question 57

Planned Unit Developments

Answer 57

1949
Prince George’s County, MD

Prince George’s County, Maryland, created what could be considered the first planned unit development, or planned combination of multiple land uses within one development. The Prince George’s County community permitted “the development of a large tract of land as a complete neighborhood unit,” including housing, shopping, parking, schools, parks, and other community facilities.

Question 58

The Housing Act of 1949

Answer 58

1949
First Comprehensive Housing Legislation in the U.S.

The Housing Act of 1949, part of President Harry Truman’s Fair Deal initiative, allocated funding to improve housing in urban areas, especially for America’s poor, in hopes of countering the effects of suburbanization. The act’s main elements included slum clearance and urban renewal, building more public housing, and expanding Federal Housing Authority mortgage insurance. The act has been criticized for ultimately eliminating more housing than it created, as well as for destroying cheaper housing in minority neighborhoods and replacing it with more expensive alternatives that residents could not afford. However, it also made open-space land, neighborhood facilities, and basic water and sewer facilities eligible for federal assistance.

Question 59

Samuel Cullers

Answer 59

1952
Samuel Cullers was possibly the first African American to earn a graduate degree in city planning, receiving his master’s from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1952. Cullers was later involved in a discrimination complaint against McKinley Park Homes in Hartford, Connecticut, after his apartment rental application was rejected despite evidence that there were apartments available. He also worked as a planner in Thailand, Canada, and Chicago.

Question 60

Housing Act of 1954

Answer 60

1954
The Housing Act of 1954, managed by the Federal Housing Authority, provided funding to support urban renewal and slum prevention, as opposed to redevelopment. The legislation also created the 701 program, which funded planning assistance for communities, contributing to the spread of planning and comprehensive plans throughout the United States. The 701 program originally targeted small local governments, but it was so popular that it was gradually expanded to cover almost all jurisdiction types in the country.

Question 61

Berman v. Parker

Answer 61

1954
5th Amendment

In Berman v. Parker, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that Congress can seize property for any public purpose under eminent domain. The case centered around the District of Columbia Redevelopment Land Agency seizing property for the purpose of beautification, which the appellants had argued violated the Fifth Amendment’s taking clause.

Question 62

Politics, Planning, and the Public Interest: The Case of Public Housing in Chicago (book)

Answer 62

1955
Martin Meyerson and Edward Banfield published Politics, Planning, and the Public Interest: The Case of Public Housing in Chicago, a landmark case study on race and public housing. They found that attempts by urban planners to implement progressive policies were subverted by societal racism.

Question 63

Federal Aid Highway Act

Answer 63

1956
President Dwight Eisenhower signed the Federal Aid Highway Act, or National Interstate and Defense Highways Act, into law, with a plan to fund 41,000 miles of interstate highways over a period of 10 years. Under the act, 90 percent of construction costs came from a Highway Trust Fund, while states paid the remaining 10 percent. The act contributed to an increase in driving by Americans, as well as to the growth of suburbs and the decline of cities.

Question 64

First Urban Growth Boundary

Answer 64

1958
Lexington, Kentucky, became the first city to enact an urban growth boundary, a growth management initiative that limited new development to a specific area in the city. An urban growth boundary is intended to prevent urban sprawl into agricultural and rural land. In Lexington, the goal was to protect bluegrass and horse farms that were considered part of the city’s identity.

Question 65

The Image of the City (book)

Answer 65

1960
Kevin Lynch

Kevin Lynch published The Image of the City, a groundbreaking look at how a city is viewed by its residents. He conducted a study in Boston, Los Angeles, and Jersey City, and found that people used five components to process their city: paths, edges, districts, nodes, and landmarks. Planners have used this information to make cities more legible and improve wayfinding.

Question 66

Jane Jacobs

Answer 66

1961
Jane Jacobs, a journalist with no professional architectural or planning experience, published The Death and Life of Great American Cities, one of the best-known books about urban planning. She described the book as “an attack on current city planning and rebuilding,” which she criticized for losing touch with the people who live in cities. Jacobs’s book eventually led the urban planning field to see urban renewal more critically and develop more appreciation for existing structures and street patterns. It also directly inspired the New Urbanism movement in planning.

Question 67

Land Use Law of 1961

Answer 67

1961
Hawaii Kicks Off Growth Management

Hawaii passed the Land Use Law, which classified all state lands as urban, rural, agricultural, or conservation, with a statewide Land Use Commission created to oversee the law. The Land Use Law is seen as the start of the “quiet revolution” that shifted the emphasis from local to statewide land-use planning in order to tackle cross-regional issues such as environmental concerns. It also is considered to have kicked off the first wave of growth management, which also included the rulings in Golden v. Ramapo in 1972 and Construction Industry Association, Sonoma County v. City of Petaluma in 1975, as well as Oregon’s launch of comprehensive growth management in 1973.

Question 68

Housing Act of 1961

Answer 68

1961
The Housing Act of 1961 was approved by President John Kennedy, authorizing $4.9 billion in new funding for a wide array of housing programs. This included funding for acquiring open-space land, improving mass transportation, urban renewal, and building farm housing. The American Society of Planning Officials hailed the act as “provid[ing] opportunities never before possible for coordinated planning of community development.”

Question 69

Baker v. Carr

Answer 69

1962
Power shifts to cities
14th Amendment (equal protection clause)

The U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Baker v. Carr that federal courts can review how seats are distributed in a state legislature and whether they are disproportionate. The ruling shifted power from rural to urban representatives in state legislatures. This led to “urban issues” like mass transportation, civil rights, and slum housing taking priority in following years.

Question 70

Silent Spring (book)

Answer 70

1962
Rachel Carson published Silent Spring, which described the negative impacts of pesticides on nature. The book popularized the concept that humans can damage the environment, sparking a growth in interest in environmentalism and sustainability in many arenas of American life. This included the field of planning, which saw the birth of sustainable development and smart growth. It also led to the creation of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

Question 71

Urban Mass Transportation Act

Answer 71

1964
President Lyndon Johnson’s Urban Mass Transportation Act provided funding for mass transportation projects in cities. It also created the Urban Mass Transportation Administration, later the Federal Transit Administration. The act shifted the primary mode of financing mass transportation projects to federal grants and loans.

Question 72

The Urban General Plan (book)

Answer 72

1964
T.J. Kent, Jr. published his seminal planning textbook The Urban General Plan, which he also intended as a guide for nonplanners and government officials. The book lays out the history of the use, characteristics, and purpose of the urban comprehensive plan, as well as its status at the time of publication. Kent also served as city planning director and deputy mayor for development for San Francisco, and founded and chaired the Department of City and Regional Planning at the University of California at Berkeley.

Question 73

Founding of the Architects’ Renewal Committee in Harlem (ARCH)

Answer 73

1964
The Architects’ Renewal Committee in Harlem, one of the first community design centers, was founded. Community design centers are organizations dedicated to putting the philosophy of advocacy planning into practice by helping with and getting residents involved in the planning, design, and development of low- and moderate-income communities. Other important CDCs include Barrio Planners, which worked in Hispanic communities in Southern California starting in 1971, and Asian Neighborhood Design, which has been active in San Francisco’s Chinatown community since 1973.

Question 74

Reston, Virginia

Answer 74

1964
Robert Simon, Jr., planned Reston, Virginia, as a 6,750-acre new town based on seven principles, including walkability, density, access to nature and green space, and racial and wealth diversity. The original design included seven village centers (reduced to five in development), each with its own architectural design and central plaza, as well as a town center. Reston’s unique design required Simon to get Fairfax County, Virginia, to create a new zoning designation: the planned residential community. Reston’s development cost forced Simon to bring in Gulf Oil as a funder in 1967, and the company eventually fired him.

Question 75

Planners for Equal Opportunity (PEO)

Answer 75

1964
A group of planners influenced by backlash to urban renewal movements and broader social change founded Planners for Equal Opportunity to push the profession toward social reform. The group thought that planners should take a more active role in countering racial discrimination, poverty, and oppression. PEO conducted its own conferences, but also held meetings during American Institute of Planners conferences and worked to influence AIP policy and practices. PEO disbanded in 1974, but the Planners Network carried many of its priorities and activities forward.

Question 76

Community Action Programs (CAPs)

Answer 76

1964
Title II of the federal Economic Opportunity Act established Community Action Programs, which were aimed at eliminating poverty. The programs were controversial because they gave the power for deciding how money would be allocated to a community’s impoverished population as opposed to elected officials. Although CAPs were generally ineffective because of high expectations and insufficient funding, among other issues, they raised awareness in the planning field of the need to include the community and look beyond mere physical redevelopment to social, economic, and political development as well.

Question 77

Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD)

Answer 77

1965
The Department of Housing and Urban Development Act of 1965 created the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development as a cabinet-level agency. Robert Weaver was the first secretary of the department, making him the first African American appointed to a cabinet position in the U.S. government. HUD’s mission is to make sure that there is equal access to housing and community-based employment opportunities, as well as to fund new housing, public housing, and housing rehabilitation projects. The department also insures mortgages and protects consumers. HUD is an important source of financing for planning projects.

Question 78

Advocacy and Pluralism in Planning (article)

Answer 78

1965
Paul Davidoff
Advocacy Planning

The Journal of the American Institute of Planners published “Advocacy and Pluralism in Planning” by Paul Davidoff, which laid out the concept of advocacy planning. He argued that planners needed to advocate for the poor and powerless, which became an influential concept among activist planners in the 1960s and 1970s. Davidoff later founded the Suburban Action Institute to take legal action against exclusionary zoning. APA’s Advancing Diversity and Social Change in Honor of Paul Davidoff award continues his legacy.

Question 79

Chicago Freedom Movement Rally

Answer 79

1966
Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.
Martin Luther King, Jr. spoke at a rally in Soldier Field in Chicago in support of the Chicago Freedom Movement. The movement was aimed at eliminating racially discriminatory practices in Chicago, including housing issues like mortgage and loan discrimination. The next day, King presented a list of demands to Chicago Mayor Richard J. Daley, who was hostile to the movement. Daley eventually agreed to collaborate on an open-housing agreement, which is considered a forerunner to the Civil Rights Act of 1968, but King continually criticized Daley for not taking action on the agreement.

Question 80

National Historic Preservation Act

Answer 80

1966
The National Historic Preservation Act was signed to protect historic sites from development. It was a response to the impacts of urban renewal and highway construction on important landmarks in urban areas. The act also established the National Register of Historic Places and National Historic Landmarks Programs. Many communities now consider historic preservation through stand-alone plans or as part of a larger comprehensive plan.

Question 81

Model Cities Program

Answer 81

1966
The Demonstration Cities and Metropolitan Development Act of 1966 was signed into law by President Lyndon Johnson. The act, which was aimed at urban renewal, established grants that would pay as much as 80 percent of the cost of developing city demonstration programs and technical assistance from the Department of Housing and Urban Development. The act’s Model Cities Program funded the costs of developing and implementing comprehensive plans, as well as providing education, job, recreation, and leadership opportunities for inner-city residents.

Question 82

Community Development Corporations

Answer 82

1966
New York, NY

Sen. Robert Kennedy, New York City Mayor John Lindsay, and Sen. Jacob Javits established the Bedford Stuyvesant Restoration Corporation, one of the first community development corporations in the United States. CDCs are nonprofit organizations focused on revitalizing a specific community through initiatives such as affordable housing, economic development, and neighborhood planning. Since they are locally focused and community controlled, CDCs theoretically have a better understanding of a community’s problems and how to fix them.

Question 83

Fair Housing Act

Answer 83

1968
Title VIII of the Civil Rights Act of 1968, also known as the Fair Housing Act, was signed into law. The act prohibited discrimination against a property renter or buyer on the basis of race, color, religion, or national origin; gender was added in 1974 and disability and familial status in 1988. The act was heavily and contentiously debated in Congress, but President Lyndon Johnson put pressure on legislators to pass it after the assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr. Although the Fair Housing Act and other initiatives helped reduce racial segregation by community slightly over the following decades, many studies continue to show heavy segregation even now.

Question 84

Housing and Urban Development Act

Answer 84

1968
The Housing and Urban Development Act of 1968 established Ginnie Mae to provide additional mortgage funding for moderate-income families. The act also allocated $250 million in funding for New Town projects. The towns funded under this initiative were Jonathan, Minnesota; Park Forest South, Illinois; Flower Mound, Texas; and St. Charles, Maryland.

Question 85

Design With Nature (book)

Answer 85

1969
Ian McHarg

Ian McHarg, a Scottish landscape architect, published Design With Nature, a landmark work on considering the natural environment when planning. It took the English philosophy of garden design and applied it more broadly to the connection between the human world and the natural world. The book influenced the concepts of environmental impact assessments, coastal zone management, and sustainability, among others.

Question 86

Association of Collegiate Schools of Planning (ACSP)

Answer 86

1969
The Association of Collegiate Schools of Planning was established, creating a consortium of university departments and programs offering planning degrees and degrees affiliated with planning. The organization started holding its own meetings separately from the American Planning Association in 1981.

Question 87

A Ladder of Citizen Participation (article)

Answer 87

1969
The Journal of the American Institute of Planners published “A Ladder of Citizen Participation” by Sherry Arnstein, a seminal article in the field of community engagement. The ladder of citizen participation is a model representing the relationship between government and community, with eight steps ranging from “manipulation” to “citizen control.” The steps are placed under three categories: nonparticipation, tokenism, and citizen power. Arnstein’s influential paper affected the thinking on power dynamics in decision making, not just in the field of urban planning but on many other fields as well.

Question 88

National Black Planning Network (NBPN)

Answer 88

1969
NBPN Challenges AIP and ASPO

Sixty black students walked out of the National Conference on Urban Planning Education in protest and formed the National Black Planning Network. The group demanded $10 million from the American Institute of Planners and the American Society of Planning Officials for projects aimed at integrating city planning curricula with the realities of black communities. AIP established a task force to work with the NBPN, while ASPO responded to the organization’s issues both directly and indirectly through editorials in Planning magazine.

Question 89

National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA)

Answer 89

1970
The National Environmental Policy Act created a mandate for federal agencies to consider environmental impacts when making decisions on any project that involves federal funding, work performed by the federal government, or permits issued by a federal agency. NEPA is considered to have opened the door for later environmental legislation, such as the Clean Air Act of 1970, the Clean Water Act of 1972, the Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972, the Endangered Species Act of 1973, and the Superfund Act of 1980, among others. Collectively, these acts established significant new national requirements for environmental protection.

Question 90

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

Answer 90

1970
President Richard Nixon proposed the creation of the Environmental Protection Agency to examine and counter the impact of humans on the natural environment. The EPA administers federal environmental regulations that can impact planning projects, such as an environmental impact statement or an environmental assessment.

Question 91

First “Fair Share” Housing Plan

Answer 91

1970
The Miami Valley Regional Planning Commission in Dayton, Ohio, adopted the first fair-share regional allocation plan for low- and moderate-income housing. The plan established common housing goals for local governments and included a detailed housing policy package. It successfully led to the spread of affordable housing to Dayton’s surrounding counties and townships.

Question 92

Oakwood at Madison, Inc. v. Township of Madison

Answer 92

1971
Court Finds Zoning Ordinance Exclusionary

In Oakwood at Madison, Inc. v. Township of Madison, a New Jersey judge ruled that Madison Township’s zoning ordinance was illegal because it prevented as many as 90 percent of the region’s residents from getting housing in the township. This was the first time that a zoning ordinance was completely invalidated for being exclusionary.

Question 93

Demolition of Pruitt-Igoe

Answer 93

1972
St. Louis, MO

Demolition of the Captain WO Pruitt Homes and William L. Igoe Apartments in St. Louis began only 16 years after construction was completed on the public housing complex, due to a range of factors including crime, poverty, racial segregation, public welfare and housing policies, and changes to St. Louis as a whole. The demolition has been seen as a rejection of the high-density high-rise model of public housing and government participation in urban renewal.

Question 94

The State of the City: A Cluster Analysis of Los Angeles (article)

Answer 94

1974
Early Urban Data Analysis

The Los Angeles Community Analysis Bureau published “The State of the City: A Cluster Analysis of Los Angeles,” which has come to be seen as an early approach to computer-assisted data processing for urban analysis and improvement. The report was based on digitized information from the U.S. Census Bureau, the Los Angeles Police Department, the Los Angeles County Assessor, and other private and public sources, and divided the city into clusters determined by 66 social and physical characteristics. The report’s lack of traction implied that data analysis needed to be connected to planning, policy, and advocacy to be effective.

Question 95

Community Development Block Grant program (CDBG)

Answer 95

1974
Establishment of CDBG Program and Section 8 housing

The Housing and Community Development Act of 1974 created the Community Development Block Grant program. Under CDBG, a block of flexible community development funds is distributed annually using a formula that considers community population, poverty, age of housing, housing overcrowding, and growth lag. The act also created Section 8 housing support, which provides housing rental assistance to low-income households, and the first federal urban homesteading initiative.

Question 96

Cleveland Policy Planning Report (plan)

Answer 96

1975
Cleveland Plan Focuses on Social Policy

Cleveland City Planning, led by City Planning Director Norman Krumholz, published the Cleveland Policy Planning Report, a groundbreaking comprehensive plan that reframed planning with a focus on social issues. The plan, steeped in the concepts of equity planning and advocacy planning, looked for planning-based solutions to problems like poverty, unemployment, crime, and neighborhood deterioration. The controversial document raised questions about the role of the city planner and the comprehensive plan.

Question 97

Southern Burlington County N.A.A.C.P. v. Mount Laurel Township

Answer 97

1975
NJ Court Rules on Affordable Housing

In Southern Burlington County N.A.A.C.P. v. Mount Laurel Township, the New Jersey Supreme Court upheld a lower-court ruling that Mount Laurel Township must have an affordable housing plan for residents and people who work in the township. The ruling established that municipalities must meet a fair share of their affordable housing need. The case was the first in the U.S. to ban exclusionary zoning practices that prevent the development of affordable housing. However, it was not well implemented, requiring a second ruling in 1983 that created a formula for determining a municipality’s fair share, as well as an avenue for developers to sue if a municipality didn’t provide enough affordable housing.

Question 98

Planners Network

Answer 98

1975
Chester Hartman launched Planners Network, a network of progressive planners, when he sent a letter to about 300 planners and activists, including former members of Planners for Equal Opportunity. The network initially worked primarily through a newsletter in which members discussed radical and socialist approaches to urban planning. Starting in the late 1970s, Planners Network started to hold conferences and local activities, as well as form local chapters.

Question 99

Community Reinvestment Act (CRA)

Answer 99

1977
President Jimmy Carter signed the Community Reinvestment Act into law to address discriminatory lending practices, including redlining practices that prevented racial minorities from getting housing loans. The issue was brought to the fore by community activist groups led by the Chicago-based National People’s Action. Research has shown that the CRA was successful in increasing loans in low- to moderate-income neighborhoods, although it is not clear to what degree

Question 100

First State with Statewide Zoning

Answer 100

1978
Hawaii

The Hawaii State Planning Act made Hawaii the first state to institute zoning across the state. The statewide planning system created under the act included policy, planning, implementation, and monitoring.

Question 101

Penn Central Transportation Co. v. New York City

Answer 101

1978
5th Amendment

The U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Penn Central Transportation Co. v. New York City that restrictions on development due to historic landmark status do not constitute takings. Penn Central Transportation had planned to build an office structure on top of Grand Central Terminal in New York City, but was prevented from doing so because the proposal involved demolishing part of the historic building and changing its character. The company argued that it deserved recompense because the city’s decision constituted a regulatory “taking,” or denial of a reasonable economic use.

Question 102

American Planning Association (APA)

Answer 102

1978
The American Institute of Planners and American Society of Planning Officials merged to become the American Planning Association. At the time, ASPO Executive Director Israel Stollman said the merger would “build a unified, strong planning organization that will serve the interests of the profession and the public.”

Question 103

First New Urbanist Town

Answer 103

1981
Seaside, FL
Andres Duany and Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk

Construction began on Seaside, Florida, the first town built completely to New Urbanist principles. New Urbanism is focused on walkable neighborhoods, sustainability, traditional neighborhood design, transit-oriented development, and other practices intended to encourage a sense of community. Seaside was designed by Andres Duany and Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk based on research into other southern coastal towns.

Question 104

Habitat Conservation Plan Amendment

Answer 104

1982
The National Endangered Species Act of 1973 was amended to allow possible exemptions when developers create a Habit Conservation Plan to protect wildlife while developing a protected area. They are submitted as part of an application for an incidental take permit and describe anticipated effects of the development, how developers will minimize these effects, and how it will be funded.

Question 105

Local Government Comprehensive Planning and Land Development Act of 1985

Answer 105

1985
Second Wave of Growth Management
Florida

Florida passed the Local Government Comprehensive Planning and Land Development Act of 1985, requiring that local government plans be consistent with state and regional plans or risk losing funding. The act is seen by some as the start of the second wave of the “quiet revolution” in land-use laws in the United States, which included Delaware, Maine, Rhode Island, and Vermont passing growth management laws.

Question 106

Low-Income Housing Tax Credit (LIHTC)

Answer 106

1986
The Low-Income Housing Tax Credit was created under the Tax Reform Act of 1986, giving tax incentives to companies that develop affordable housing. By some estimates, the credit is responsible for about 90 percent of all affordable housing built in the United States.

Question 107

Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)

Answer 107

1990
President George H. W. Bush signed the Americans with Disabilities Act into law, protecting Americans from discrimination based on their physical or mental disabilities. Title II of the law prohibited disability discrimination by local public entities, including public transportation and state and local public housing. Title III covered places of business, though it made some allowances for historic properties. ADA compliance popularized the planning concepts of accessibility and universal design.

Question 108

HOPE VI Program

Answer 108

1992
The U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development introduced the HOPE VI program, which offered grants to revamp public housing development into mixed-income housing and provided housing vouchers for apartment rentals. The program followed the tenets of New Urbanism, including promoting pedestrianism and transit access and developing low-rise buildings instead of larger apartment buildings. While critics took aim at HOPE VI for encouraging gentrification of lower-income neighborhoods and reducing the amount of available housing, proponents cited research indicating that it effectively replaced dangerous public housing units with safer, better-designed options.

Question 109

Federal Enterprise Zones and Empowerment Communities

Answer 109

1993
The Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1993 included legislation creating empowerment zones and enterprise communities for the first time at the federal level. These designations applied to specific distressed urban and rural communities, and were intended to encourage comprehensive planning and investment by providing tax incentives and social service funds.

Question 110

Autonomous Car Testing

Answer 110

1995
Dean Pomerleau and Todd Jochem of Carnegie Mellon University’s Robotics Institute traveled 2,850 miles across the United States with a computer controlling their car for more than 98 percent of the journey, making it the longest continuous test of an autonomous vehicle in a real-world environment. Their video-based system used visual identifiers in the road and the position of the car ahead to identify the center of the lane and control the vehcile’s steering. CMU’s Robotics Institute had developed a series of autonomous vehicles since 1986.

Question 111

First Fellows of AICP

Answer 111

1999
The American Institute of Certified Planners announced the first class of the College of Fellows, established to honor professional planners who have made notable contributions to AICP, the profession, and society. Recipients of the honor can use the honorific FAICP as part of their title. AICP is APA’s professional institute and provides the only nationwide, independent verification of planners’ qualifications.

Question 112

Disaster Mitigation Act

Answer 112

2000
The Disaster Mitigation Act of 2000 was the first disaster relief bill to emphasize mitigation, or taking a proactive approach to reducing the impacts of a disaster before it happens, in its name. Under the act’s Hazard Mitigation Grant Program section, communities that had received presidential declarations of disaster could apply for grants for disaster mitigation. The act also included new requirements for state, local, and tribal entities to coordinate mitigation planning and implementation efforts.

Question 113

The Rise of the Creative Class (book)

Answer 113

2002
Richard Florida

Richard Florida’s book The Rise of the Creative Class suggested that cities can revive their economies by working to attract residents who work in creative, scientific, and engineering fields. He proposed developing amenities that would draw these types of residents, such as coffee shops and art venues. Although some communities have benefited from this approach, it has also been criticized for encouraging gentrification and shifting urban problems to the suburbs, which Florida himself acknowledged in later works.

Question 114

DARPA Challenge

Answer 114

2004
The first Grand Challenge issued by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency took place in California’s Mojave Desert. Builders were challenged to create autonomous vehicles that could traverse a 150-mile course. Although none of the vehicles successfully completed the course in 2004, the Challenge was repeated in 2005 and shifted to a simulated urban environment in 2007. The challenges highlighted and pushed forward autonomous technologies seen in self-driving vehicles today.

Question 115

The High Cost of Free Parking (book)

Answer 115

2005
In his landmark book The High Cost of Free Parking, Donald Shoup, FAICP, argued that reducing subsidies for parking would reduce air pollution and traffic congestion as well as improve land use. He proposed that cities should charge fair market prices for on-street parking, spend the resulting revenue to improve public services in the metered neighborhoods, and remove the minimum parking requirements in municipal zoning ordinances. Shoup’s pioneering book led a growing number of cities to adopt these three reforms. In a follow-up book, Parking and the City, Shoup and 46 other contributors examined the results of these reforms in practice and found important benefits for cities, the economy, and the environment.

Question 116

Kelo v. City of New London

Answer 116

2005
5th Amendment

In Kelo v. City of New London, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that private redevelopment plans qualify as a public use for takings if they provide sufficient economic growth benefits to a community. The case centered on the use of eminent domain on properties in New London, Connecticut, as part of an economic development plan based around a pharmaceutical research facility. State laws based on the ruling made planning more publicly visible and suggested that eminent domain needs to be tied to the broader planning process when used.

Question 117

Cities Grow Faster Than Suburbs

Answer 117

2011
U.S. Census Bureau data showed cities growing faster than suburbs for the first time in decades. The research revealed 1.1 percent population growth from 2010 to 2011 in metro areas with a million or more people, compared with 0.9 percent growth in the suburbs. The shift was attributed to the economic recession of the mid-2000s cutting into the suburban housing market and causing families to grow more slowly. However, this trend appeared to be slowing already by 2016, suggesting it may have been a short-term change.

Question 118

Expansion of Housing Discrimination Laws

Answer 118

2012
The U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development published the rule Equal Access to Housing in HUD Programs Regardless of Sexual Orientation or Gender Identity. The rule prohibited discrimination in HUD-funded housing and programs on the basis of sexual orientation and gender identity. It also prevented judgment on homeless assistance housing based on a person’s marital status, sexual orientation, or gender identity.

Question 119

Mass-Produced Self-Driving Cars

Answer 119

2017
General Electric announced plans to begin mass production of self-driving cars, with sales scheduled to begin in 2019. The company said its cars will be utilized as a fleet of autonomous robo-taxis. Planners across the country are working to accommodate the impending reality of self-driving cars in their transportation plans.