History Midterm Terms Flashcards
Pazzi Conspiracy
A 1478 plot by the Pazzi family to assassinate Lorenzo de’ Medici and his brother Giuliano during Mass in Florence Cathedral. Giuliano was killed, but Lorenzo survived. The conspiracy failed and led to a brutal crackdown by the Medici, strengthening their control.
Francesco della Rovere
Became Pope Sixtus IV in 1471. Known for nepotism (appointed six nephews as cardinals), commissioning the Sistine Chapel, and involvement in the Pazzi Conspiracy indirectly by supporting it through his nephew Girolamo Riario.
Bloody Sunday (1478)
violently retaliated against the conspirators. Public executions took place in Florence’s streets.
Sandro Botticelli
Renowned Early Renaissance painter. Famous works include The Birth of Venus and Primavera, which reflect classical themes, humanism, and Medici patronage.
Conversos
Jews in Spain who converted to Christianity, often under pressure or threat. They were still persecuted during the Spanish Inquisition for secretly practicing Judaism.
Isabella of Castile
Queen of Castile; married Ferdinand of Aragon. Their union united Spain. Sponsored Columbus’s voyage, completed the Reconquista, and launched the Spanish Inquisition with her husband.
Filippo Brunelleschi
Architect of the Florence Cathedral’s dome. Known for reviving classical architecture and inventing linear perspective in art.
The Holy League
An alliance formed by Pope Julius II in 1511 with Spain, Venice, and the Holy Roman Empire to push France out of Italy during the Italian Wars.
Richard, Earl of Warwick
Known as the “Kingmaker” during the Wars of the Roses in England. Initially supported the Yorkists, then switched allegiance to the Lancastrians.
Pope Alexander VI
Born Rodrigo Borgia. Infamous for corruption, nepotism, and using papal power to advance his family, especially Cesare and Lucrezia Borgia.
Francis I of France
Renaissance king who rivaled Charles V. Patron of the arts and Leonardo da Vinci. Fought in Italian Wars and negotiated the Concordat of Bologna.
Martin Luther
German monk who launched the Protestant Reformation. Wrote the 95 Theses, opposed indulgences, and translated the Bible into German.
Pope Leo X
Medici pope who excommunicated Luther. Known for extravagance and selling indulgences to fund St. Peter’s Basilica.
Dispensation
Special permission granted by the pope to exempt someone from church law. Crucial in Henry VIII’s marriage to Catherine of Aragon.
Ninety-five Theses
Document by Martin Luther (1517) criticizing church practices, especially indulgences. Posted in Wittenberg, it sparked the Protestant Reformation.
Johann Tetzel
Dominican friar known for selling indulgences in Germany. His actions prompted Luther’s 95 Theses.
Diet of Worms (1521)
An imperial council where Luther refused to recant his beliefs. Resulted in his excommunication and outlaw status in the Holy Roman Empire.
Huldrych Zwingli
Swiss reformer in Zurich. Agreed with Luther on many issues but differed on Eucharist interpretation. Killed in battle.
Huguenots
French Calvinists persecuted in Catholic France. Suffered during events like the St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre.
Juana the Mad
Daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella. Queen of Castile but considered mentally unstable. Confined for much of her life.
Predestination
Calvinist belief that God has already determined who will be saved. Emphasizes divine sovereignty over human free will.
Frederick the Wise
Elector of Saxony. Protected Martin Luther after the Diet of Worms by hiding him in Wartburg Castle.
Anabaptists
Radical reformers who rejected infant baptism. Advocated adult baptism and separation of church and state. Persecuted by Catholics and Protestants.
Yorkists
A faction in the Wars of the Roses supporting the House of York. Opposed the Lancastrians. Edward IV and Richard III were Yorkist kings.
Girolamo Riario
Nephew of Pope Sixtus IV. One of the key instigators of the Pazzi Conspiracy, which aimed to remove the Medici.
Pope Sixtus IV
See Francesco della Rovere. Involved in the Pazzi Conspiracy, patron of the arts, built the Sistine Chapel.
Albrecht Dürer
German Renaissance artist known for woodcuts, engravings, and detailed self-portraits. Influenced by Italian art.
Reconquista
Centuries-long effort by Christian kingdoms to retake Spain from Muslim rule. Ended in 1492 with the conquest of Granada.
Ferdinand of Aragon
King of Aragon. Married Isabella of Castile. His rule unified Spain, completed the Reconquista, and started the Inquisition.
Spanish Inquisition
Church court established to root out heresy. Targeted conversos and Muslims. Notorious for torture and secret trials.
Pope Julius II
“Warrior Pope” who formed the Holy League, commissioned Michelangelo’s Sistine Chapel ceiling, and expanded Papal States.
Münster
City taken over by radical Anabaptists in 1534–35. Declared a theocracy, but eventually crushed violently.
Henry Fitzroy
Illegitimate son of Henry VIII. Made Duke of Richmond. His existence emphasized Henry’s desperation for a male heir.
Porphyria
Likely genetic disorder affecting some royals, possibly including members of the Tudor family. Symptoms include light sensitivity and neurological issues.
Presbyterians
Protestant denomination stemming from Calvinism, especially in Scotland. Founded by John Knox; emphasizes elder-led church governance.
Pope Clement VII
Medici pope during the Sack of Rome. Refused to annul Henry VIII’s marriage, leading to the English Reformation.
Sack of Rome (1527)
Carried out by mutinous troops of Charles V. Marked a major humiliation for the Papacy and effectively ended the High Renaissance in Rome.
Lancastrians
Faction in the Wars of the Roses supporting the House of Lancaster. Henry VI and Henry VII were Lancastrian kings.
